!"
"
La# transformation# d’un# système# économique# en# un# autre#:# le# cas# de# la# transition#
postsocialiste#en#Europe#de#l’Est#(1989=2015)#
"
#$$%&"'()*"
*+,-.%"/%"01&23.%&0%$"456"%&"301&178%"9:;<"=>?"@"AB);#(:C"D"E+.8$"
"
:1&-.8FG-81&"+G":1AA1HG%")5IJ:C*K)65I):K)*4"L"(%"MN3&17O&%"01&$-8-G+&-P"<&"/8+A1QG%"
8&-%./8$08MA8&+8.%"RK"ST"&1U%7F.%"S=!>"K"VN==""
*+&G2+0-G.%"/%$"J+F+0$"K"#7MN8"*W"))"
*+&G2+0-G.%"/%$"-+F+0$X"S!"#AA3%$"/%"W.8%&&%"
Y!==="J1GA1G$%""
"
Introduction*
(%"0N+&Q%7%&-"/BG&"$Z$-O7%"301&178HG%"%&"G&"+G-.%"%$-"G&"MN3&17O&%"M%G"3-G/83"M+."A%$"
301&178$-%$P")A"$B+Q8-"/BG&"MN3&17O&%"017MA%[%"/G.+&-"A%HG%A"G&"1./.%"301&178HG%"/1&&3"
$%"/3$+Q.OQ%"%-"01&/G8-"+M.O$"G&%"M3.81/%"U+.8+FA%"$%A1&"A%$"01&-%[-%$"M1A8-8HG%$"%-"$108+G["
@"AB8&$-+G.+-81&"/BG&"&1GU%A"1./.%"301&178HG%P"
(+"HG%$-81&"/%"A+"L"-.+&$8-81&"R"+"3-3"/3F+--G%"M1G."A+"M.%78O.%"218$"%&"-%.7%$"301&178HG%$"
M+." A%$" F1A0N3U8HG%$" %&" 6G$$8%" /+&$" A%$" +&&3%$" !VS=P" )A" $B+Q8$$+8-" /%" /328&8." A+" $-.+-3Q8%" @"
$G8U.%" M1G." M+$$%." /G" 0+M8-+A8$7%" +G" 0177G&8$7%P" EAG$8%G.$" MN+$%$" +U+8%&-" +A1.$" 3-3"
$G8U8%$"\":177G&8$7%"/%"QG%..%"9!V!TK!VS!?X";1GU%AA%"M1A8-8HG%"301&178HG%"9!VS!K!VS]?X"
71/OA%"$-+A8&8%&"@"M+.-8."/%"!VS]P"5B%7FA3%X"/%G["01&0%M-81&$"/G"0N+&Q%7%&-"$Z$-378HG%"
$%" $1&-" 1MM1$3%$"\" ABG&%" -3A31A1Q8HG%" 9E.31F.+^%&$_ZX" J.1$-_ZX" `8&1U8%U?X" 01&$8/3.+&-" HG%"
AB+F1G-8$$%7%&-" $1GN+8-3" /%" A+" -.+&$21.7+-81&" $Z$-378HG%" /3-%.78&%" G&%" M1A8-8HG%"
U1A1&-+.8$-%" /G" 0N+&Q%7%&-X" %-" AB+G-.%" Q3&3-8HG%" 9W1G_N+.8&%X" 'N+&8&%X" W+a+.1U?" 8&$8$-+&-"
$G." A%$" 01&-.+8&-%$" N3.8-3%$" /G" M+$$3" %-" A%G." &30%$$+8.%" 78$%" %&" 01N3.%&0%" +U%0" A%$"
&1GU%+G-3$" 37%.Q%&-%$P" :%" /3F+-" +" %&$G8-%" 3-3" .+U8U3" @" 7+8&-%$" .%M.8$%$X" &1-+77%&-" %&"
301&178%"/G"/3U%A1MM%7%&-X"%&-.%"A%$"-%&+&-$"/BG&%"0.18$$+&0%"/3$3HG8A8F.3%"948.$0N7+&X"
WZ3X"5%"W%.&8$?"%-"0%G["/BG&%"0.18$$+&0%"3HG8A8F.3%"9;G._$%X"61$%&$-%8&X"61/+&X"61$-1b?P"
I&"IG.1M%"/%"ABI$-X"0B%$-"@"A+"28&"/G"cc%"$8O0A%X"+U%0"AB%221&/.%7%&-"/G"$Z$-O7%"$108+A8$-%X"HG%"
0%$"/%G["01&0%M-81&$"/%"A+"-.+&$8-81&"U1&-"$B1MM1$%."@"&1GU%+GP"5BG&"0d-3X"A%$"301&178$-%$"
A8F3.+G[" /32%&/%&-" G&%" U8$81&" -3A31A1Q8HG%" /G" 0N+&Q%7%&-" -+&/8$" HGBG&%" M18Q&3%"
/B301&178$-%$"N3-3.1/1[%$"M.1M1$%&-"/%$"U8$81&$"+A-%.&+-8U%$"M1G."+&+AZ$%."A%$"7G-+-81&$"
%&" 01G.$P" (B1F^%-" /%" 0%--%" 01&-.8FG-81&" %$-" /%" 2+8.%" A%" M18&-" $G." 0%$" /%G[" U8$81&$" /%" A+"
-.+&$21.7+-81&" M1$-$108+A8$-%X" /B%&" %[MA8HG%." A%$" .%$$1.-$" %-" /B%&" 2+8.%" .%$$1.-8." A%$" A878-%$P"
<&%" M.%78O.%" M+.-8%" M.3$%&-%" AB+MM.10N%" -3A31A1Q8HG%" /%" A+" -.+&$8-81&X" A%$" M.81.8-3$" HG8" %&"
/301GA%&-X" A%$" .321.7%$" 7%&3%$" /+&$" A%$" M+Z$" /BIG.1M%" /%" ABI$-" %-" A%$" L"$G.M.8$%$"R"
+G[HG%AA%$" A%$" .321.7+-%G.$" A8F3.+G[" 1&-" %G" @" 2+8.%" 2+0%P" <&%" /%G[8O7%" M+.-8%" $B+--+0N%" @"
M.3$%&-%."A%$"U8$81&$"N3-3.1/1[%$"/G"0N+&Q%7%&-"%-"A%G.$"A878-%$"
"
"
S"
"
"
I. La* conception*téléologique*du* changement*
systémique*
"
(+" U8$81&" -3A31A1Q8HG%" /32%&/G%" M+." A%$" A8F3.+G[" 01&/G8-" @" A+" /328&8-81&" /%" .321.7%$"
$M30828HG%$"@"+0017MA8."M1G."7%&%."@"F8%&"A%"0N+&Q%7%&-"$Z$-378HG%"%&"IG.1M%"/%"ABI$-"9#?P"
:%M%&/+&-X"A%$"A8F3.+G["$%"N%G.-%&-"@"/%$"L"$G.M.8$%$"R"/%"A+"-.+&$8-81&"M1$-$108+A8$-%"9W?P""
A. La*transition*libérale*
"
E%&/+&-" A+" M.%78O.%" /30%&&8%" /%" A+" -.+&$8-81&" M1$-$108+A8$-%X" A%$" 301&178$-%$" A8F3.+G["
1&-" G&" .dA%" /178&+&-" /+&$" M.%$HG%" -1G$" A%$" M+Z$" /BIG.1M%" /%" ABI$-P" (%G." +MM.10N%"
-3A31A1Q8HG%"%-"A8F3.+A%"/G"0N+&Q%7%&-"%$-"/1&0"0%AA%"HG8"$B87M1$%"%-"1.8%&-%"A%$".321.7%$"
78$%"%&"MA+0%P"IAA%"%$-"3Q+A%7%&-"M.8U8A3Q83%"+G"$%8&"/%$"Q.+&/%$"8&$-8-G-81&$"8&-%.&+-81&+A%$"
HG8" 8&-%.U8%&&%&-" %&"IG.1M%" /%"ABI$-" 9e*)X" W+&HG%" 71&/8+A%X" C:5IX" <IX" WI65?" @" M+.-8." /G"
/3FG-" /%$" +&&3%$" HG+-.%KU8&Q-K/8[P" (%" -%.7%" /%" L"-.+&$8-81&"R" %$-" Q3&3.+A%7%&-" %7MA1Z3"
M1G."HG+A828%."0%--%"U8$81&"/G"0N+&Q%7%&-"$Z$-378HG%P"
E1G." A%$" 301&178$-%$" A8F3.+G[X" A%" M18&-" /%" /3M+.-" %$-" 01&&G" 9A%" $108+A8$7%?X" A%" M18&-"
/B+F1G-8$$%7%&-"$1GN+8-+FA%"AB%$-"-1G-"+G-+&-"9AB301&178%"/%"7+.0N3"M+.2+8-%?P")A"2+G-"/1&0"Z"
M+.U%&8." 01f-%" HG%" 01f-%X" A%" MAG$" U8-%" M1$$8FA%X" M+." A+" 78$%" %&" MA+0%" /BG&%" M1A8-8HG%" /%"
-.+&$8-81&"U1A1&-+.8$-%X"M%G"87M1.-%"A%$"/82280GA-3$"/G"717%&-"N8$-1.8HG%"%-"A%$"01&-.+8&-%$"
N3.8-3%" /G" M+$$3P" (B+&+AZ$%" A8F3.+A%" &%" $%" M.3100GM%" /B+8AA%G.$" QGO.%" /%" $+U18." $8" A%$"
01&-.+8&-%$"%[8$-+&-" +G" M18&-" /%" /3M+.-" .%&/%&-" M1$$8FA%" 1G" &1&" A+"-.+&$8-81&"U%.$"A%"M18&-"
/B+F1G-8$$%7%&-"$1GN+8-3P":%$"01&-.+8&-%$"$1&-"78&878$3%$"%-"01&$8/3.3%$"0177%"-1G^1G.$"
$G.71&-+FA%$P" )A" $B+Q8-" /%" /3-.G8.%" AB+&08%&" $Z$-O7%" A%" MAG$" U8-%" M1$$8FA%" +28&" HGB37%.Q%"
$M1&-+&37%&-"A%"&1GU%+GP"
:%--%"U8$81&"/G"0N+&Q%7%&-"$%"-.+/G8-"M+."A+"M.81.8-3"/1&&3%"@"0%.-+8&%$".321.7%$"MAG-d-"
HGB@"/B+G-.%$P"e8$0N%."%-"g%AF"9!VV!?"%&"/1&&%"G&%"A8$-%"+$$%a"017MAO-%"\"A8F3.+A8$+-81&"9/%$"
M.8[X"/%$"-+G["/%"0N+&Q%X"/G"0177%.0%"8&-3.8%G."%-"%[-3.8%G.?X"+F+&/1&"/%"A+"MA+&8280+-81&"
0%&-.+A8$3%" %-" 87M3.+-8U%" /%" AB301&178%X" +^G$-%7%&-" $-.G0-G.%A" %-" $-+F8A8$+-81&"
7+0.1301&178HG%X".%$-.G0-G.+-81&X"M.8U+-8$+-81&X"0.3+-81&"/%"&1GU%AA%$"%&-.%M.8$%$"M.8U3%$X"
2A%[8F8A8-3"/G"7+.0N3"/G"-.+U+8AX"1GU%.-G.%"%[-3.8%G.%"%-"&1GU%AA%"8&$%.-81&"/+&$"AB301&178%"
71&/8+A%X" .321.7%" /G" $Z$-O7%" F+&0+8.%" %-" 28&+&08%.X" +/1M-81&" /%" &1GU%AA%$" A18$" %-"
8&$-8-G-81&$" $-+FA%$" +28&" /%" 2+8.%" .%$M%0-%." A%$" .321.7%$" M.303/%&-%$" %-" A%G.$" .3$GA-+-$P" (%$"
301&178$-%$"A8F3.+G["/32%&/%&-"AB8/3%"/BG&%"-N3.+M8%"/%"0N10X"0B%$-K@K/8.%"A+"78$%"%&"MA+0%"
$87GA-+&3%"/%$".321.7%$"08-3%$"08K/%$$G$"+28&"/B3U8-%."-1G-%"01&-.+/80-81&"%&-.%"&1GU%AA%$"%-"
+&08%&&%$"8&$-8-G-81&$P"
B. Les*surprises*de*la*«*transition*»*postsocialiste*
"
Y"
"
5+&$"A+"M.+-8HG%X"A+"-N3.+M8%"/%"0N10"&B+"M+$"3-3"-%&+FA%"$G."A+"/G.3%"%&"IG.1M%"/%"ABI$-"
%&".+8$1&"/%$"87M1.-+&-$"01f-$"$108+G["HGB%AA%"87MA8HG+8-"%-"/%$"/32+8-%$"3A%0-1.+A%$"HGB%AA%"
8&2A8Q%+8-" +G[" Q1GU%.&%7%&-$" HG8" M%.$8$-+8%&-" /+&$" 0%--%" U18%P" J1G-%218$X" A+" 01&0%M-81&"
-3A31A1Q8HG%"A8F3.+A%"901&&G%"+G$$8"$1G$"A%"&17"/%"L"01&$%&$G$"/%"h+$N8&Q-1&"R?"+"/178&3"
%&"IG.1M%"/%"ABI$-"/G.+&-"A%$"+&&3%$"HG+-.%KU8&Q-K/8["%-"A%"/3FG-"/%$"+&&3%$"S===P"
:%M%&/+&-X"AB+00G7GA+-81&"/%".3$GA-+-$"8&+--%&/G$"%-"8&/3$8.+FA%$"8$$G$"/%$"M1A8-8HG%$"/%"
-.+&$8-81&" QG8/3%$" M+." A+" -3A31A1Q8%" +" M.1Q.%$$8U%7%&-" 01&/G8-" @" G&%" .%78$%" %&" 0+G$%" /%$"
NZM1-NO$%$"/%"AB+MM.10N%"A8F3.+A%"/G"0N+&Q%7%&-P"IAA7+&"9!VVT?"M+.A%"/%"L"$G.M.8$%$"/%"A+"
-.+&$21.7+-81&"R" M1G." /30.8.%" /%$" $8-G+-81&$" 8&+--%&/G%$X" U18.%" 01&-.+/80-18.%$" +U%0" A%$"
1F^%0-82$" +2280N3$" /+&$" A%" 01&$%&$G$" /%" h+$N8&Q-1&P" #&/.%22" 9S==T?" %&" M.1M1$%" G&%" A8$-%"
%[N+G$-8U%"%&" M.%&+&-" A%" $18&" /%" /8$-8&QG%." A%$"$G.M.8$%$" 7+0.1301&178HG%$"/%$" $G.M.8$%$"
8&$-8-G-81&&%AA%$P"
(%$" $G.M.8$%$" 7+0.1301&178HG%$" $1&-" A83%$" @" AB+7MA%G." 8&N+F8-G%AA%" /%" 0%.-+8&$"
MN3&17O&%$"1F$%.U3$"%&"IG.1M%"/%"ABI$-P"(B8&2A+-81&X"M+."%[%7MA%X"+"3-3"MAG$"/G.%"@"U+8&0.%"
HG%"M.3UG"M+."A+"-N31.8%"A8F3.+A%X"$8"F8%&"HGB1&"+".+M8/%7%&-"M+.A3"/BL"8&2A+-81&"8&%.-8%AA%"RP"
EAG$8%G.$"%[MA80+-81&$"1&-"3-3"+U+&03%$"M1G."%[MA8HG%."0%"MN3&17O&%"90+M-+-81&"/%$"0.3/8-$"
M+."A%$"+&08%&&%$"3A8-%$"%-"A%$"8&/8U8/G$"%&"$8-G+-81&"/%".%&-%X"+MMA80+-81&"/%"-+G["/%"7+.Q%"
3A%U3$"+28&"/%"7+8&-%&8."$+A+8.%$"%-"%7MA18$X"0NG-%"/%"A+"M.1/G0-81&"A83%"+G[".%$-.G0-G.+-81&$X"
01&2A8-"/%".3M+.-8-81&"%&-.%"/8U%.$"Q.1GM%$"$108+G[X"%-0P?"%-"-1G-%$"/3F1./%&-"A%"0+/.%"$-.80-"
/%" AB+&+AZ$%" -3A31A1Q8HG%" A8F3.+A%" /%" A+" -.+&$8-81&P" (+" L".30%$$81&" -.+&$21.7+-81&&%AA%"RX"
/B+M.O$" AB%[M.%$$81&" /%" i1.&+j" 9!VVk?X" +" 3-3" %AA%" +G$$8" MAG$" M.121&/%" %-" MAG$" A1&QG%" HG%"
M.3UG%P"'1GU%&-" 017M+.3%" @" A+" Q.+&/%" /3M.%$$81&" /%$" +&&3%$" -.%&-%" +G[" I-+-$K<&8$X"0%--%"
.30%$$81&" &%" -.1GU%" +G0G&%" %[MA80+-81&" /+&$" AB+MM.10N%" -3A31A1Q8HG%" MG8$HG%" AB3A878&+-81&"
/%$"01&-.+/80-81&$"/G"$Z$-O7%"M.303/%&-"+G.+8-"/f"$%"-.+/G8.%"M+."G&%"21.-%"+GQ7%&-+-81&"
%-"&1&"G&%"/878&G-81&"/%"A+"M.1/G0-81&P"(+"01&-.+0-81&"/G"0177%.0%"%[-3.8%G."M.1U1HG3%"
M+."A%$"/3$8&-3Q.+-81&$"/G":#I*X"/%"AB<6''"%-"/%"A+"J0N301$A1U+HG8%"+"3-3"MAG$"M.121&/%"HG%"
M.3UG%P"I&28&X"A%"-+G["/%"0Nd7+Q%"+"M.3$%&-3"G&%"8&%.-8%"21.-%"M+.".+MM1.-"+G["U+.8+-81&$"/G"
&8U%+G"/B+0-8U8-3"%-"$G.-1G-" &1&" M.3UG%" M+."AB+MM.10N%"-3A31A1Q8HG%"/G" 0N+&Q%7%&-P" #8&$8X"
/G.+&-"A%$"+&&3%$"HG+-.%KU8&Q-K/8[X"A%$"M%.-%$"/B%7MA18$"$1&-"718&$"HG%"M.1M1.-81&&%AA%$"@"A+"
0NG-%" /%" A+" M.1/G0-81&" 87MA8HG+&-" A1Q8HG%7%&-" G&" /30A8&" /%" A+" M.1/G0-8U8-3" /G" -.+U+8A" %&"
IG.1M%" /%" ABI$-P" )&U%.$%7%&-X" A%$" M3.81/%$" /%" .%M.8$%$" /B+0-8U8-3$" &%" $B+0017M+Q&%&-" M+$"
/BG&%" .3/G0-81&" $8Q&8280+-8U%" /G" -+G[" /%" 0Nd7+Q%" 87MA8HG+&-" HGBG&%" M+.-8%" /G" 0Nd7+Q%"
90%AA%" 8$$G%" /%$" .%$-.G0-G.+-81&$?" &B%$-" M+$" .3$1.F3%" M+." A%$" +0-8U8-3$" /G" &1GU%+G" $%0-%G."
M.8U3"%&"0.18$$+&0%"/%MG8$"A%"/3FG-"/%"A+"-.+&$8-81&P"
(%$"$G.M.8$%$"8&$-8-G-81&&%AA%$"U8%&&%&-"/G"2+8-"HG%"A%"M.1Q.+77%"A8F3.+A"+"3-3"+MMA8HG3"
%&" IG.1M%" /%" ABI$-" $+&$" +U18." .3+A8$3" M.3+A+FA%7%&-" G&" 0N+&Q%7%&-" M.121&/" /G" 0+/.%"
8&$-8-G-81&&%AP" :%A+" +" %&Q%&/.3" G&%" $3.8%" /B%22%-$" 8&+--%&/G$" /1&-" ABL"%&.+08&%7%&-"R" /%$"
7+&+Q%.$" @" A+" -l-%" /%$" %&-.%M.8$%$" M.8U+-8$3%$X" A+" /371&3-8$+-81&" /%" AB301&178%" %-"
AB%[M+&$81&".+M8/%"/%"AB301&178%"8&21.7%AA%P"
:%$" L"$G.M.8$%$"R" /%" A+" -.+&$8-81&" 1FA8Q%&-" @" .%01&$8/3.%." A%" .3+A8$7%" /%" A+" U8$81&"
-3A31A1Q8HG%" /%" 0N+&Q%7%&-" $Z$-378HG%" %-" 1GU.%&-" A+" U18%" +G[" +MM.10N%$" -%&-+&-" /%" A%$"
/3M+$$%.P"
k"
"
"
II. La* conception*génétique*du* changement*
systémique*
"
(B+MM.10N%"Q3&3-8HG%"%&"301&178%"01&$8$-%"@"-%&8."017M-%"/%$"01&-.+8&-%$"%[8$-+&-%$"%-"
@" %&" /3Q+Q%." A%$" M%.$M%0-8U%$" /B3U1AG-81&$" M1$$8FA%$X" L"HGB%AA%$" $18%&-" 1G" &1&" A%$" MAG$"
$1GN+8-+FA%$"R" 9#&/.%22X" !VVY?P" #M.O$" +U18." M.3$%&-3" A+" /1GFA%" 0%.-8-G/%" /%" AB+MM.10N%"
Q3&3-8HG%" /G" 0N+&Q%7%&-" $Z$-378HG%" 9#?X" A%$" +MM.10N%$" +A-%.&+-8U%$" /%$" 7G-+-81&$"
M1$-$108+A8$-%$"$1&-"/8$0G-3%$"9W?P""
A. Innovations*systémiques,*blocages*et*interdépendances**
"
(+" 01&0%M-81&" Q3&3-8HG%" /G" 0N+&Q%7%&-" $Z$-378HG%" .%M1$%" $G." G&%" /1GFA%" 0%.-8-G/%P"
5BG&%"M+.-X"+G0G&%"3U1AG-81&"&B%$-"-1-+A%7%&-"8..3U%.$8FA%P"<&"U1A1&-+.8$7%"-.1M"%[+0%.F3X"
8&/G8$+&-" /%$" 01f-$" $108+G[" -.1M" 87M1.-+&-" M1G." A%$" M1MGA+-81&$X" .8$HG%" /%" 01&/G8.%" +G"
01&-.+8.%"/%" AB1F^%0-82".%0N%.0N3P"5B+G-.%"M+.-X"A%$" 8&-%./3M%&/+&0%$"M.1M.%$"@"G&"$Z$-O7%"
301&178HG%"&%"M%GU%&-"l-.%"/3-.G8-%$"/G"^1G."+G"A%&/%7+8&P"J1G-"0N+&Q%7%&-"$Z$-378HG%"
%$-X" M+." 01&$3HG%&-X" G&" M.10%$$G$" A%&-" %-" /822808A%" /G.+&-" A%HG%A" A%$" +&08%&&%$" 01N3.%&0%$"
/8$M+.+8$$%&-"@"7%$G.%"HG%"A%$"&1GU%AA%$"8&-%./3M%&/+&0%$"+MM+.+8$$%&-P"5%$"$8-G+-81&$"/%"
FA10+Q%" /%" A+" -.+&$8-81&" M%GU%&-" +MM+.+,-.%X" .3$GA-+&-" /%" 017M1.-%7%&-$" %-" /%" $-.G0-G.%$"
301&178HG%$"MAG$"QA1F+G["N3.8-3$"/%"AB+&08%&"$Z$-O7%"$108+A8$-%P"*+8$"A%"0N+&Q%7%&-"M%G-"
3Q+A%7%&-" 01&/G8.%" @" /%$" -.1GU+8AA%$" $Z$-378HG%$" HG8" &%" $1&-" &8" AB301&178%" $108+A8$-%X" &8"
AB301&178%"/%"7+.0N3P":B%$-"M1G."0%$".+8$1&$X"HG%"A%$"+G-%G.$"N3-3.1/1[%$"M.32O.%&-"M+.A%."
/%"L"7G-+-81&"R"MAG-d-"HG%"/%"L"-.+&$8-81&"RP"(%"-%.7%"L"7G-+-81&"R"M%.7%-"/%"M.%&/.%"%&"
017M-%" AB8&$-+F8A8-3" 8&N3.%&-%" +G" 0N+&Q%7%&-" $Z$-378HG%X" &B%$-" M+$" /3-%.78&8$-%" HG+&-" @"
AB8$$G%"/G"M.10%$$G$"%-"&B%&U8$+Q%"AB3U1AG-81&"HGB%&"21&0-81&"/%$"01&-.+8&-%$"/G"$Z$-O7%"/%"
/3M+.-"%-"/%$"1F$-+0A%$".%&01&-.3$"A1.$"/%"A+"-.+&$21.7+-81&P"
B. L’importance*économique*des*institutions**
"
(%$" 01G.+&-$" 3U1AG-81&&8$-%$X" .3QGA+-81&&8$-%$" %-" 8&$-8-G-81&&+A8$-%$" $1&-" @" AB1.8Q8&%" /%$"
+MM.10N%$"Q3&3-8HG%$"/%"A+"7G-+-81&P":%$"/%.&8O.%$"$B+MMG8%&-"-1G-%$"$G."AB87M1.-+&0%"/%$"
8&$-8-G-81&$P"
(+" -N31.8%" 3U1AG-81&&8$-%" /%" 7G-+-81&" $Z$-378HG%" M+.-" /%" AB8/3%" HG%" A+" -.+&$21.7+-81&"
M1$-$108+A8$-%" %$-" &30%$$+8.%7%&-" A1&QG%" 0+." 8A" 2+G-" A%" -%7M$" &30%$$+8.%" M1G." 3A878&%." A%"
A1G./"N3.8-+Q%"/%"AB301&178%"$108+A8$-%"%-"M1G."7%--.%"%&"MA+0%"A%$"8&$-8-G-81&$"+/+M-3%$"+G"
&1GU%+G"$Z$-O7%"9301&178%"/%"7+.0N3"1G"+G-.%?"%-"M%.7%--+&-"/B%&"$-+F8A8$%."A%$".OQA%$"/%"
21&0-81&&%7%&-" 9*G..%AX" !VVS?P" (+" -.+^%0-18.%" /%" -.+&$21.7+-81&" $G8-" /%$" L"%22%-$" /%"
$%&-8%."R" /3M%&/+&-" @" A+" 218$" /%" ABN3.8-+Q%" 8&$-8-G-81&&%A" %-" /%$" .321.7%$" U+.83%$" 78$%$" %&"
MA+0%" /+&$" A%$" +&&3%$" HG+-.%KU8&Q-K/8[P" (B+00%&-" %$-" 78$" $G." A%$" /8223.%&0%$" %&-.%" A%$" M+Z$"
/BIG.1M%"/%"ABI$-"9/8223.%&-$"M18&-$"/%"/3M+.-X"/8223.%&-%$"$-.+-3Q8%$"/%"$1.-8%"/G"$108+A8$7%?P"
>"
"
5B+M.O$"*G..%AX"-1G-"$Z$-O7%"301&178HG%"/8$M1$%"/BG&"L"$-10_"/B8&21.7+-81&$"%-"/%"$+U18.$"
-+08-%$"RX" +00G7GA3" +G" 01G.$" /%" ABN8$-18.%" %-" 01&-%&G" /+&$" $%$" 8&$-8-G-81&$" %-" $%$"
1.Q+&8$+-81&$P" C." A+" $1.-8%" /G" $108+A8$7%" %$-" M%.mG%" 0177%" G&" M.10%$$G$" 017MA%[%" %-"
+$Z&0N.1&%" /%" $GMM.%$$81&" /B3A37%&-$" 0.G08+G[" /%" 0%" $-10_X" /%" /328&8-81&" /%" &1GU%AA%$"
U+A%G.$X" " /%" 0.3+-81&" /%" &1GU%AA%$" .OQA%$" 21.7%AA%$" %-" 8&21.7%AA%$X" /B+MM.%&-8$$+Q%" /%" 0%$"
/%.&8O.%$"M+."/%"&1GU%AA%$"1.Q+&8$+-81&$"%-"/B37%.Q%&0%"/%"&1GU%+G["017M1.-%7%&-$P":%"
M.10%$$G$"M.%&/"/1&0"&30%$$+8.%7%&-"/G"-%7M$"%-"A%$".321.7%$"/18U%&-"/1&0"$%"210+A8$%."$G."
A+" .%01&$-8-G-81&" /%" 0%" $-10_" %&" 8&U%&-+&-" /%" &1GU%AA%$" M.103/G.%$" /%" 011./8&+-81&" %-" /%"
&1GU%AA%$".1G-8&%$P"(%".Z-N7%"/%$"M.8U+-8$+-81&$"/18-"3Q+A%7%&-"l-.%".+A%&-8P"
(%$" -N31.8%$" 8&$-8-G-81&&+A8$-%$" 8&$8$-%&-" /+&$" A%G." %&$%7FA%" $G." A%" 2+8-" HG%" A%" 7+.0N3"
&B37%.Q%"M+$"$M1&-+&37%&-"G&%"218$"/3-.G8-"AB+&08%&"$Z$-O7%P"#G"01&-.+8.%X"A%"7+.0N3"/18-"
l-.%" 1.Q+&8$3" $108+A%7%&-P" )A" .%M1$%" $G." /%$" 8&$-8-G-81&$" 21.7%AA%$" 901&-.+-$" 0177%.08+G[X"
/.18-$"/%"M.1M.83-3$X"%-0P?"%-"8&21.7%AA%$"9&1.7%$"/%"M.8[X".1G-8&%$"/%"017M1.-%7%&-X"&8U%+G"
/%" 01&28+&0%" %&-.%" +0-%G.$?P" )A" %$-" 0.G08+A" /1&0" /%" 7%--.%" %&" MA+0%" /%$" .321.7%$" HG8"
3A+F1.%&-"A%$"8&$-8-G-81&$"2+U1.+FA%$"+G"F1&"21&0-81&&%7%&-"/G"7+.0N3P"5B+G-+&-"HG%"/+&$"
A%$"M+Z$"%&"-.+&$8-81&"01%[8$-%&-"MAG$8%G.$"71/%$"/%"011./8&+-81&"/%"AB301&178%"\"ABI-+-X"A%$"
.3$%+G[X"A%$"7+.0N3$"/1&-"A%$"8&-%..%A+-81&$"3U1AG%&-P"#"0%"-8-.%X"'-+._"9!VVn?"%$-87%"HG%"A%$"
&1GU%AA%$" 8&$-8-G-81&$" &%" .%7MA+0%&-" M+$" A%$" +&08%&&%$X" 7+8$" $%" L".%017F8&%&-"R" +U%0" /%$"
2.+Q7%&-$" 8$$G$" /%" AB+&08%&$" $Z$-O7%" $108+A8$-%P" #8&$8X" %&-.%" A%" $%0-%G." M.8U3" %-" A%" $%0-%G."
MGFA80" +MM+.+,-" G&" $%0-%G." 1o" A+" M.1M.83-3" %$-" NZF.8/%" 1G" L".%017F8&3%"R" %-" 1o" A%$" 28.7%$"
%&-.%-8%&&%&-"/%$"A8%&$"/%".3$%+G["%&-.%"%AA%$"+28&"/%".3/G8.%"A%$".8$HG%$"M%$+&-"$G."%AA%$P"
(+" -N31.8%" /%" A+" .3QGA+-81&" -%&-%X" M1G." $+" M+.-X" /%" M.308$%." U%.$" HG%A$" -ZM%$" /%"
0+M8-+A8$7%$"M%GU%&-"3U1AG%."A%$"M+Z$"M1$-$108+A8$-%$"/BIG.1M%"/%"ABI$-P":N+U+&0%"%-"*+Q&8&"
9!VV>?X"8/%&-828%&-"A%$"3UO&%7%&-$"8&2AG+&-"$G."A%$"-.+^%0-18.%$"M+.-80GA8O.%$"/%"0N+&Q%7%&-"
$Z$-378HG%$" %&" IG.1M%" /%" ABI$-"\" 0.8$%" 301&178HG%" /G.+&-" A%" $108+A8$7%X" $-.+-3Q8%$" /%"
.321.7%$" +/1M-3%$X" 8&-%&$8-3" /%" A+" M1A8-8HG%" /%" $-+F8A8$+-81&" 78$%" %&" pGU.%X" .321.7%$" /%$"
8&$-8-G-81&$P":N+HG%"M+Z$"$G8-"G&%"-.+^%0-18.%"M+.-80GA8O.%"/%"0N+&Q%7%&-"$Z$-378HG%X"+U%0"
/%$" %22%-$" /%" $%&-8%.X" /%$" F82G.0+-81&$" M1$$8FA%$" %-" M+.218$" G&" U%..1G8AA+Q%" /+&$" G&" $%&-8%."
/B3U1AG-81&" +-ZM8HG%P" I&" 63MGFA8HG%" -0NOHG%X" M+." %[%7MA%X" G&" %[%7MA%" /%" U%..1G8AA+Q%"
1.Q+&8$+-81&&%A" %$-" /1&&3" M+." A%" .%&21.0%7%&-" /G" M1GU18." /%$" F+&HG%$" HG8" 1&-" .%&/G"
M1$$8FA%"A+"$G.U8%"/B%&-.%M.8$%$"&1&".%&-+FA%$"9M+."A%"F8+8$"/G"0.3/8-?P"
Conclusion*
"
" qG%A$"%&$%8Q&%7%&-$"2+G-K8A".%-%&8."/%"0%--%"%[M3.8%&0%"N8$-1.8HG%"/%"-.+&$21.7+-81&"
$Z$-378HG%" %&" IG.1M%" /%" ABI$-P" E.%78O.%7%&-X" A%" 0N+&Q%7%&-" $Z$-378HG%" &B%$-" M+$" G&"
M.10%$$G$" A8&3+8.%" %-" 01&&G" /B+U+&0%P" (+" .3G$$8-%" 1G" &1&" /%$" .321.7%$" 78$%$" %&" MA+0%"
/3M%&/"-.O$"A+.Q%7%&-"/%"A%G."L"017M+-8F8A8-3"R"+U%0"A%$"3A37%&-$"8&$-8-G-81&&%A$"921.7%A$"%-"
8&21.7%A$?"N3.8-3$"/G"M+$$3P"5%G[8O7%7%&-X"A%"0N+&Q%7%&-"$Z$-378HG%"87MA8HG%"A+"$1083-3"
/+&$"$1&"%&$%7FA%"%-".%HG8%.-"G&"&8U%+G"78&87+A"/%"01&$%&$G$"M1G."l-.%"U8+FA%P"#"/32+G-X"
A%$" &1GU%AA%$" .OQA%$" +G.1&-" M%G" /%" 0N+&0%" /Bl-.%" .%$M%0-3%$" /+&$" A%$" 2+8-$P" (%$" .321.7%$"
A8F3.+A%$"%&"IG.1M%"/%"ABI$-"1&-"71&-.3"HGBG&"I-+-"-.1M"+22+8FA8"&B+"&1&"$%GA%7%&-"MAG$"A%$"
1 / 6 100%
La catégorie de ce document est-elle correcte?
Merci pour votre participation!

Faire une suggestion

Avez-vous trouvé des erreurs dans l'interface ou les textes ? Ou savez-vous comment améliorer l'interface utilisateur de StudyLib ? N'hésitez pas à envoyer vos suggestions. C'est très important pour nous!