2
Quantum probabilities differ from standard ones. In particular, quantum correlations involving four
observables pair wise violate Bell’s inequalities, so that microscopic quantities are intrinsically indeterminate
and depend on the observation process.
The GHZ paradox, due to Greenberger, Horne and Zeilinger, exemplifies the most troublesome
conceptual feature of quantum physics. Indeed, it baffles not only intuition, but also current logics. It deals with
a physical system made of three correlated particles. Various observables, A
1
, A
2
, A
3
, B
1
, B
2
and B
3
≡B
1
B
2
, which
we do not specify here, can be measured on such a composite system. Each of them may take discrete values a
1
,
a
2
, a
3
, b
1
, b
2
equal either to +1 or to –1. Since the three observables A
1
B
1
, A
2
B
2
and A
3
B
3
are compatible, they can
be simultaneously controlled. Consider then a statistical ensemble of systems, all prepared identically in such a
way that A
1
B
1
=A
2
B
2
=A
3
B
3
= +1. If we measure A
1
and B
1
, we shall find either a
1
=b
1
= +1 or a
1
=b
1
= –1, that is
always a
1
=b
1
; likewise for a
2
=b
2
= ±1 and a
3
=b
1
b
2
= ±1. We are tempted to infer that a simultaneous
determination of the values a
1
, a
2
and a
3
of A
1
, A
2
and A
3
(which are compatible) should verify a
3
=a
1
a
2
, that is,
a
1
a
2
a
3
=1. However both theory and experiment provide in all cases a
1
a
2
a
3
= –1. In fact the four statements a
1
=b
1
,
a
2
=b
2
, a
3
=b
1
b
2
and a
1
a
2
a
3
= –1 which seem contradictory are separately “true”, in the sense that each one can be
verified experimentally; but such experiments cannot be performed on a single system. We are not allowed to
make a logical reasoning based on a simultaneous consideration of the values of B
1
and A
2
because these
observables do not commute. No calculation, no experiment can simultaneously provide values for the numbers
b
1
and a
2
. Hence, we cannot regard as true together the statements a
1
=b
1
and a
2
=b
2
, although they can be checked
by separate experiments. Each one is true, but their union is meaningless.
Thus, if theory does not allow us to imagine thought experiments in which several statements on a
system might simultaneously be checked, we cannot draw conclusions by putting such statements together. We
are led to regard the “truth” of a quantum statement as contextual. The values of physical quantities are not
attached only to the system in itself, but also refer to the context in which their relations may be verified.
Quantum mechanics does not deal with objects per se, but with what we know and what we can infer about
them. It does not provide a direct image of the reality of the object since it involves its observation. Although it
is a perfect tool for letting us make statistical predictions, and although it appears as our most basic theory owing
to its precision and generality, it violates our daily intuition, our elementary mathematical intuition and our
feelings about reality. Its probabilities and even its logics obey rather shocking new rules.
A
u cours des derniers siècles, le champ de la physique n’a cessé de s’élargir. Cette
science couvre des phénomènes de plus en plus variés, à des échelles s’étendant de 10
–18
m en
physique des particules à 10
26
m en cosmologie. Elle permet de faire des prévisions de plus en
plus précises, et fournit une vision de plus en plus unifiée du monde. Dans une perspective
réductionniste, on peut la considérer comme la science la plus « fondamentale », en ce sens
que les autres sciences sont supposées en découler sans adjonction de principes nouveaux : la
chimie devrait en principe émerger de la physique atomique, la biologie de la chimie – même
si cette hiérarchie est de nature plus philosophique que scientifique ; dans la pratique, il n’est
pas question de réduire la biologie à la chimie, ou la chimie à la physique.