UK CIVILISATION CM1 - 17/01 How the UK constructed itself as a political entity. CLASS QUESTIONS ● ● ● ● ● ● How was the UK built? How were the political institutions created? What liberties and rights does the legal system guarantee? How were they achieved? What are rights and liberties? What is the difference? What is the difference between resistance and revolution? What elements from history are needed to understand the UK and its organisations today? What rights the UK population has gained + how the definition of rights has evolved. Rights and liberties happen because of forces, resistance, revolution… What kind of these happened to change the rights and liberties in the UK. Need to understand how the democratic institutions were created and how they work. They’re the result of evolution. When you study history: understanding and creating meaning, not just learning names, places and dates. Learning dates is important to create order and relation between events. BEFORE THE NORMANS: RESISTANCE TO INVASION? Specific kind of organisation. Not a clean division from the past, a continuity. What kind of political organisation before the Normans invaded. PRE-ROMAN PERIOD There were people in Britain before the Romans came. These people came on foot before the Ice Age, afterwards they came by boat. Settlements start with Celts from the 5th century BC. Interesting because they are considered as this mythical ancestor (the reality is more complex; they were not a uniform culture but a collection of people who shared some common culture, but they were not a strong cultural or political entity). Presented as being a form of resistance against Roman invasion, and considered as the original British people. The Roman conquest We know about it mostly from Julius Caesar’s work, The Gallic Wars. Permanent Roman occupation started in 43 AD and lasted until 410 AD (way after Julius). Romans were the first invading force. After fighting and losing, Celts either chose to stay or flee to the north and the west. RESISTANCE TO THE ROMANS Queen Boudica (30 AD - 61 AD) → Celtic Queen who wasn’t against the Roman Empire but realised she should be if she wanted her own power. Symbolic figure because reps. resistance and because she’s a woman warrior. ROMAN BRITAIN Modernisation and urbanisation of the country, as well as means of transportation → good for war + trade and exchanges (roads for military and economical reasons). There were strong influences from Roman traditions over local culture. ie. architectural pieces showing Roman culture, Roman baths… There never was a permanent Roman settlement in Scotland. (Romans built a wall to keep the Scottish away) We generally date the arrival of Christianity in Britain around the 5th century. During that period, the fall of the Roman Empire. ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD Resistance against the Saxons Another mythical figure of resistance → Ambrosius (re-written as King Arthur) Sites in England and Wales can be found that are supposed to be linked to Arthur, but it is very much the stuff of legend (mediaeval myth taking on a lot of Christian values) Ultimately, the resistance of the Britons did not succeed and most of the South-West became Anglo-Saxons territory. ANGLO-SAXONS CUSTOMS (500-1060 CE) - strong division of social ranks (people divided depending on what they owned) earl, thane, churl (freeman), bondmand (servant or slave) - administrative districts (shire) governed by an Ealdorman, later ‘shire reeve’ (chief magistrate) - the Witenagemot (or Witan) = “meeting of wise men” and folkmoots (local assemblies) → early form of government, of leaders getting together to discuss VIKING INVASIONS Take lands from the Anglo-Saxons. Late 8th and early 9th century, strong resistance from King Alfrid (?). York was the capital of the Vikings there. Old Norse and Scandinavian language heritage. DANELAW (860-1060 AD) - one kingdom on both sides of the North Sea in the 11th century (1016-1035, King Canute (Cnut), Danish King of England, Norway and Denmark - both geographical and legal meaning If you sum it up: What we have is a number of resistance figures which are essential components of what British people see as fundamental to this mythical British identity. Can you see some elements of this history in Britain today? (culture, myths, fiction, politics, administration, language, geography…) - LOTR/High fantasy → good old English people (the Hobbits, in the Shire) - Video games → Britain’s history is an easy background, especially if the setting is during a war FOR NEXT WEEK - Research and learn about the Bayeux Tapestry (quick research and careful analysis of the picture, answer questions 1 to 6) - Summarise findings about the tapestry (q 7) (help on UPdago) THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY Who produced the tapestry? The artist is actually unknown, as there are no documents concerning its making or the first three centuries of its life. It seems, however, to have been commissioned by the bishop Odo of Bayeux, half-brother to William the Conqueror, to adorn his Bayeux cathedral. What does this tell us about the point of view? The point of view is going to favour the French side of the story. What does the Tapestry relate overall? It is renowned for relating the infamous Battle of Hastings, but the story pictured actually starts much earlier, portraying the end of the reign of Edward the Confessor, what led to the Battle, and, of course, the Battle itself. Identify the specific action portrayed in the excerpt above. It is the scene portraying the death of King Harold. Distinguish the Normans and the Angles. The Normans have lighter (in colour) shields than the Angles do. Give information about the inscriptions. The inscription reads “Here King Harold has been killed. Summarise in a short paragraph what you have learnt. CM2 - 24/01 NORMAN INVASIONS ● NORMAN INVASION ● NORMAN SOCIAL AND POLITICAL ORGANISATION ● THE RIGHT TO PROPERTY How does it happen that a Duke from Normandy came to be King of England? A WAR OF SUCCESSION Edward the Confessor = last Saxon king; died without an heir. Invaded and united the kingdoms. To succeed him: - The Godwin family → Harold Godwin, whose sister was married to Edward; chosen by the Witenagemot // Tostig (Harold’s brother; estranged), who thought why should his brother succeed and not him - Norway invaders Harald Hardraader; allies with Tostig - Edgar the AEtheling → grandson of the step-brother of Edward the Confessor - William of Normandy → bastard’s son of the Duke of Normandy (ie. cannot inherit much in France); descendant of Emma of Normandy, herself a descendant of English and Danish kings Witenagemot → council who gives approval on who becomes king 1066: A TURNING POINT - - Battle of Stamford Bridge Armies of Harold Godwin fighting against the armies of Harald. Harold’s armies win. Battle of Hastings Armies of William coming up, armies of Harold coming down from Norway, they fight. William’s armies win. THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY Not woven, but embroidered Extract we study: - “Here King Harold has been killed.” - The Normans are on horseback, the Saxons on foot - Most likely, English craftspeople embroidered this (ie. people who lost this war paid to embroider something depicting their loss) This embroidery is propaganda BUT it’s a lot more ambiguous than that; it depicts the win of William’s armies, but it’s not insulting to the Saxons (they’re pictured as fighting bravely), probably because it was embroidered by English people NORMAN RULE (1066-1154) & FEUDAL ENGLAND Political order based on who had money, and more importantly, who had land. Shires and hundreds → thanes (thegns) Manor → property of the lord Population: - freemen/sokemen - unfree - villans - bordars/cottars - Slaves Most of the population in England at this time was unfree. DOMESDAY BOOK, 1086 William the Conqueror came to England, but didn’t know what and who he was ruling over, so he sent people around to write down everything on the land (castles, vineyards, villages, abbeys, how many people, who owns what, how much do they produce, etc...), compiled in the Domesday Book. Why? Two reasons: - Some lords didn’t want to support him, he redistributed their properties to lords who did support him + lords he brought from Normandy - Taxation Domesday Book Established who owned what, right to property and related rights RIGHT TO PROPERTY Land, subsistence Common pastures → technically belongs to the lords, but people in villages could use them - Who had right to property? How did they get it? Who had no right to it? Does the right to property hold as strong a value today? Why is the right to property important? MAGNA CARTA BBC Bitesize questions 1. What do you think Matthew Paris thinks of King John? He seems to think King John a greedy, lazy, oppressive, and militarily inept king. 2. Why might he have this view? Matthew Paris might hold King John in such high contempt because the King is in conflict with the Church (which he has been tightly controlling) and with the Pope. Mr. Paris is a monk, and so would have a biased view of King John. 3. Why is his work significant? His work is significant because it is a first-hand account of the reign of King John and gives us a glimpse into what the population thought of him. 1. How does Graham E. Seel defend King John? Mr. Seel defends King John and his alleged ‘cruelty’ by comparing it to other immensely cruel acts committed by previous Kings (Richard I and Henry V). 2. Why do historians need to study a range of sources before judging King John? So they can be aware of the context surrounding his reign and the decisions he made regarding the economy of his kingdom and military advances in France. It is easy to judge King John if you only look at his (‘poor’) actions and decisions, but these don’t exist in a vacuum; looking at the reign of previous kings and the state they left England in for King John to rule over is important. It is just as important, however, to look at the criticism he faced, since a king is thought to always do what’s best for his kingdom, and thus for his subjects; if they aren’t happy, then he probably was doing something wrong. TD questions 1. Who are the people mentioned in (1)? Correct answer: The Baron themselves, their heirs, all free men and their heirs. Expected answer even though they wrote the question wrong: Father Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury; Henry, archbishop of Dublin; William, bishop of London; Peter, bishop of Winchester; Jocelin, bishop of Bath and Glastonbury; Hugh, bishop of Lincoln; Walter, bishop of Worcester; William, bishop of Coventry; Benedict, bishop of Rochester; Master Pandulf; Brother Aymeric; William Marshal, earl of Pembroke; William, earl of Salisbury; William, earl of Warren; William, earl of Arundel; Alan of Galloway; Warin fitz Gerald; Peter fitz Herbert; Hubert de Burgh; Hugh de Neville;... 2. What do you notice about their names and titles? why are they listed? and in the order given? Most of them are religious people, some of them are lords. They are listed because they are the ones proposing this charter. They are in order of highest in religious hierarchy to ‘lowest’, and then the various lords are listed according to their rank. 3. What was the context of the document? Contrary to the custom, King John didn’t issue a charter for his barons at the beginning of his reign, and thus they didn’t have a written agreement as to what their rights and liberties were. Additionally, at this time, the taxes put upon nobility were still high, following the reign of Richard I (a result of his Crusades, his ransom and the war he waged against France). King John’s quarrel with the Pope and his financial demands towards the Church also meant he wasn’t well regarded by ecclesiastes. 4. What is the dispute referred to in the text? Idk bro. 5. Where was it signed? By whom? After what? It was signed in Runnymede, not far from London, by the barons and the King (note: signed in the way it was meant in the Middle Ages, ie. by affixing a wax seal). 6. What was the role of the barons in the kingdom? Why are they constantly mentioned? They are directly under the King, they own land and are bound to perform annual military service and provide the King’s army with some of their men if need be. They are also required to attend the King’s Council. 7. What are the following: “county, hundred, wapentake, and tithing” (25)? They are administrative divisions of territories. A county is the equivalent of a shire, it is divided into hundreds or wapentake, which are themselves divided into tithings (one tenth of a hundred). 8. What practices and areas of custom and law does the document mention? Free customs by land and water (l. 24); lawsuits (l.31); trials (l. 39); ‘evil’ customs? (l. 51); fines (l. 60) 9. What do the clauses acknowledge? What wrongs are they supposed to redress? They acknowledge justice and rent; they’re supposed to redress unfair trials, dispossessions. 10. What rights does it set out? Right to a fair trial, right of travelling in or out of the kingdom unimpeded. 11. What is/are the most important clause/s in the Charter? Why? Clause 61, stating that if the King or any baron does not respect the clauses laid out in the charter, castles and other possessions could be seized until judgement was passed. Clause 39, stating that no free man can be imprisoned, stripped of his rights or possessions or exiled until he is fairly judged. 12. What is the significance of the “twelve sworn knights of the county” (48)? Knights of the Templar? (religious knights involved in the Crusades) 13. What words are recurrent? And what does that say about the document? “granted”; “liberties”; “customs”; “rights”; “free man”; “lawful”; “secured” The document is mainly about granting free men liberties and rights and giving them lawful judgement. 14. What is the importance of the Council of twenty-five barons in the future? They are the one allowed to keep the King (and other officials) in check and dispossess them of their castles and other properties until they right their wrongs. 15. Why is the Great Charter considered such an important document? It was the first document to lay out liberties free men should enjoy and subjecting the King/royalty to the law; and it is the foundation of individual rights in today’s laws, both in the UK and in the U.S. CM3 - 31/01 MAGNA CARTA: A SHIFT OF POWER? It has been recalligraphed because it has been turned into a legendary piece of legislation, with a lot of power and legacy. A myth was created around the Magna Carta, that it created the rule of law; that it created a legal base for rights and liberties. A single text does not create rights, but there are symbols used and reused. PLANTAGENET RULE 1154-1485 - - - Feudal consolidation → the King kept a court (royal household) with him at all time; because the King executes power, if you’re close to him you have influence, and the King could keep an eye and hand on the people surrounding him. Itinerant court → moves around, thousand of people travelling; form of controlling territory Barons rule → have a lot of power over their tenants; lot of conflicts between barons, between the interests of the barons and the interests of the King; Rule of Law → kind of a philosophical question: there is a God appointed King, can this King do what they want, decide absolutely everything? If the King does something, is it legal just because it’s the King? Is there an absolute Rule of Law, and is the King subjected to it? Relations with the rest of the British Isles → Scotland and Wales are still independent even if English Kings are trying to conquer (esp. Wales); Ireland is a series of kingdoms ruled by individual kings COMMON LAW - Henry II - Double meaning of Common Law - Case-based This is a huge kingdom, esp. if you only travel by horse or by foot. The question is how do you organise it so that there is a central legal system? You need to centralise it. In England, it is organised in a case-by-case basis. Judges write texts justifying their decision concerning specific cases, texts which are sent to London and form a law system. Common Law → common for the whole kingdom of England; and for everybody (form of equality between people, the law is the same for everyone) [Common Law is good from a historian P.O.V bcoz gives lots of elements to study] WHY DID THE BARONS REVOLT? - Scutage Financial demands of feudal kings Death tax System open to abuses Late 12th century (~1199). King John is extremely unpopular. - Wanted to impose some things on the Church In mediaeval times, the Church was a political power. In these times, political power was linked to owning land, so pissing the Church off is not a good idea, especially since it has a lot of international allies. - Had lost Normandy, wanted to get it back and tried fighting this war, but needed money → taxation → scutage (not liked) - He lost lmao. MAGNA CARTA 1215 The Barons got together with the King at Runnymede, and signed the Magna Carta (King’s seal because he could not write). The Barons did not want rights and liberties, they just wanted the King to have less power. The Magna Carta was about allowing the Barons to control the King more. The Magna Carta was negotiated and signed in 1215 but became law in 1297. MYTHICAL MAGNA CARTA? It has become mythical because of a number of its clauses, some which remain today: - ‘No free man shall be seized or imprisoned… except by the lawful judgement of his peers.’ - ‘To no one will we sell, to no one deny or delay right or justice.’ RESISTANCE OF ENGLISH AGAINST NORMANS Peasants’ revolt 1381 - South east of England, Cambridge, Norwich, London - There was a large epidemic in the decades beforehand → need to keep people working, but barons did not want to increase wages - Tax increase + other factors led to increasing poverty - Peasants refused these tax increases and attacked symbols of the feudal system Useful because it shows that ‘normal’ people also rebel and have a voice Robin Hood against the Robber Barons - Folklore, fillmore or reality? - 13th century → ‘Robehood’ or ‘Rabunhod’ - Series of oral ballads - Robin Hood fights against the Sheriff of Nottingham (symbol of the feudal order What has the Magna Carta changed for the British political order? What are the roots of modern-day representative democracy? CM4 - 07/02 – A NEW BRITISH ORDER? 1. DEVELOPMENT OF PARLIAMENT The Magna Carta was the base for the structure of Parliament as we know it. - Ancient customs The emergence of the British Parliament Parliamentary evolution P. emerged naturally. It evolved ‘organically’, there was no single moment or text determining how it worked. ANCIENT CUSTOMS: sources of inspiration - Saxon: Witan - Moots (local assemblies) - Norse / Danelaw: Wapentake - Isle of Man: Tynwald (considered the oldest Parliament in the world) These are kind of the roots P. takes inspo from. No Roman roots. BUILDING ON ESTABLISHED PRINCIPLES → Henry II with the Common Law = one of the basis of Parliament (one law for the whole country) → John with Magna Carta and Great Council = basis of what would become the House of Lords THE KING’S POWER Comes from: his feudal position (highest lord in the country); his patronage (able to give a wife, land, money,... to people) which attracts power; and the court life. How was the central position of the King challenged, how did it come that the barons were powerful enough to impose some sort of limit? THE CRUX OF THE MATTER: Taxation There are many ways you can decide to tax somebody - Income tax - Product tax → Feudal taxes vs new taxes Scutage Talliage → land taxation In the early M.A, most of the king’s money came from the land, and a minimal part from other forms of taxations. But the feudal economy changed, and so the King was not able to mobilise as much money through taxation. Henry III wanted to have land to give to his sons, which meant he needed a lot of land. He wanted to keep Gascony and he wanted to conquer Sicily. This meant he needed a lot of money, but he did not have enough. → Knights: representatives of boroughs The king called for people to be elected in boroughs to be sent to Parliament to represent their boroughs → 1258: Provisions of Oxford The barons established their council (they claimed much more power). But the king tried to impose taxes again. → 1264: Baronial rebellion = captured the king and took over government (led by Simon de Montfort, until killed by the armies of the king in 1265; he’s a totemic image of rebellion, of refusing absolute royal power) 1275: Statute of Westminster, early form of commodification of power WHY WESTMINSTER? Because it was the site of the royal palace and was next to Westminster Abbey. In 1512, Henry VIII stopped living there and gave it to the Parliament. In 1547 Edward VI handed St Stephen’s Chapel in the Palace of Westminster over to the Commons for their use. WHO COULD BE A MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT? WHO COULD VOTE? Two sides at the origin of the bicameral system we have today: - Great Council → advisors underlined in the Magna Carta - Commons → elected; in 1254 elected county representatives (knights of the shire); in 1255 representatives of both the counties (knights) and the towns (burgesses) bcoz more and more people living into towns, so this takes into account the social changes; in 1429 right to vote in county elections: based on owning freehold property In the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Parliament only existed when the King called for it, so members were elected only when called to. It makes sense for a time when communication and travel times were different. THE STATE OPENING OF PARLIAMENT Mediaeval symbols - The mace → representation of royal power - The Black Rod → makes a link between the King and the House of Commons - The Speaker of the House of Commons Every year when there is a new session of Parliament, the King opens it (comes to P. and reads a speech in which the government describes their program, today, the king just reads it, but it still is a symbol of the king saying: this is what my government is going to do). FOOD FOR THOUGHTS - What factors have influenced the form of Parliament? - Importance of taxation as a factor of change - Importance of socio-economic changes (land owners position in society and their power change) - Can we say that P. between the 13th and the 16th century was becoming more democratic? The UK does not have a written constitution, and therefore there is no challenge to the constitutional arrangements CM5 - 21/02 – Exercise → What do we think of when we say Magna Carta? - 1215 - King John - Barons and earls - Basis for Parliament - We will not sell justice - Every free man has the right to a fair trial - Revised with political crisis in the 13th century - King’s possessions can be taken if he does not respect the terms Reasons - Bishops - Abuse of power - Taxation Results - Rights and liberties of free men - Rule of Law PART 2: THE BRITISH ISLES – A FRAGMENTED TERRITORY → creation of a British order rather than an English order United Kingdom, a union of what? → the Royal coats of arms is a good example the Tudor one (mid-16th century): crown, lion of England and dragon of Wales the contemp. One: crown, lion, unicorn of Scotland + Tudor rose and still symbol of Wales = inclusion of Scotland is not natural, it’s a political construct - What was the relationship between England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland? What were the political organisations of Wales, Scotland and Ireland? THE BRITISH ISLES IN THE 14TH CENTURY Fragmented territory with a lot of different kingdoms (England, Wales divided in two, Scotland and Ireland divided in a number of kingdoms). WALES - - Divided in two parts because some parts had been conquered by the Normans, some hadn’t → the Marches (led by marchers/marcher lords), territories that had been invaded by the Normans // the Principality of Wales (led by the Prince of Wales). = two different social/political/geographical organisations Edward I’s conquests → fought a war against Llewelyn ap Gruffyd (Prince of Wales, died 1282) who is now an important political symbol for Welsh identity. Edward wanted to expand his territory, but there was a tradition in Wales that you could only be Prince of Wales if you were born there (carted his wife so that she would give birth to their son in Wales, Edward II first English Prince of Wales). E1 installed the basic administrative organisations in Wales. - Statute of Wales, 1284 14th and 15th centuries - Owain Glyndwr → rebellion in 1400 in order to bring independence about TUDOR TIMES - Acts of Union: 1536 and 1543 Before that, two separate organisations, after = administrative and legal integration SCOTLAND - - Was an independent kingdom; Alexander III: died in 1286 and his only heiress died a few years later = no heir for Scotland → asked the English King to become overlord so he would be able to give the crown to someone else BUT King = still Edward I, who wanted Scotland, Scottish said no = war E1 marched into Scotland and seized the Stone of Destiny in 1296 (the English still lost the war tho) William Wallace, big name in Scottish identity, figure of resistance to the English, captured and executed in 1305 War won in 1314 at the Battle of Bannockburn, six years later the leaders of the Scots sent the Declaration of Arbroath to the Pope Treaty of Northampton (independence) signed in 1328 Decrease of English influence - - One of the reason was the Hundred Years War, as the English were busy with the French and with keeping hold on the territories they had conquered rather than conquering new ones Auld Alliance = Scotland/France alliance → influence of the French stronger than that of the English = more power for individual lords of Scotland → were a lot more independent than English ones 1603: THE UNION OF THE CROWNS - Henry VII had a number of children, including Margaret Tudor who married James IV King of Scotland, and Henry VIII (famous for having six wives), whose children didn’t have kids = no heir to the King of England → great-grandson of Margaret, James VI of Scotland became James I of England - Still two separate kingdoms until the Act of Union in 1707 IRELAND ANGLO-NORMAN IRELAND - In the 14th century, under quite a strong influence of the English kings (land led by Irish natives not very large) Indirect rule - In 1450, the land held by English King was rather small (called The Pale) - Anglo-Irish magnates - 1366: Statutes of Kilkenny → to avoid a return to Irish culture and identity / politics organised around the use of the English language (instead of Irish Gaelic), intermarriages were forbidden (Anglo-Irish could only marry Anglo-Irish,...) Continued unrest - Varied reasons: aggressive English administratives, lords seizing native lands, violence toward Irish natives - No King visited Ireland through the 13th and 14th centuries Ireland in the 17th century - Some areas were kept under Marshall laws, with very strong military order. In other areas, a policy of plantation was started in 1609 (= planting people,into diff. parts of Ireland so they could organise English migrations → gave the English the best lands so they would settle and populate the place), ended in 1625 - Desire to promote a certain form of religion - Massive colonisation of the west = Irish rebellion against English order 1641-1642), violently crushed and caused a strong army to be maintained Ireland 1642-1653 - 1642-1649 → Confederate Ireland - 1649-1653 → Parliamentary invasion led by Oliver Cromwell in order to crush the Irish and their desire for independence - 80% of property in the hands of the English Protestant (before, 60% in the hands of Irish Catholics) - Deep-seated feeling of resentment from the Irish toward the English Constant movement between unity and fragmentation, fights for independence, England gaining and losing influence,... if royal power is not exercised militarily, it loses its influence. FOOD FOR THOUGHT: when you look at Britain today, can you see a difference between England, Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland? How? - Different political entities, which means difference of measures, legislations,... 1/ In chronological order, write down the most important dates mentioned regarding the relationship between England and Ireland. - It started with the Normans in 1169 (start of a conquest and beginnings of a methodical colonisation) - At the end of the 15th century, Ireland has mostly escaped the control of the English government expect for the Pale (around Dublin) - In 1494, Henry Tudor passes a law that brings the Parliament of Dublin under the authority of the lord deputy and of his own private counsel - In 1541, Ireland becomes a kingdom/monarchy - From 1550 on, the new way of colonising Ireland is by settling → sending or attracting people (English and Scottish colonisers) 2/ Why did the English and the Scottish go to Ireland? What's the evolution of this motivation? CM6 - 06/03 How the conflicts between Parliament and the King + England and other nations RELIGION AND THE STATE → What religious changes happened, and why, and how they affected political institutions. The relationship with God, the question of what happened after death were crucial questions for people in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Interesting representation of a religious and political conundrum. Characters: Henry VIII Edward, Mary (+ her husband Philip of Spain) and Elizabeth Arès (next to Mary and Philip = side of Catholics) and personifications of peace, wealth and wisdom (same side as Edward and Elizabeth = side of good) Achronical painting Catholic Church – rival to monarch → conflict of loyalties, conflict of moral authority between the King and the Church, on the questions of money and power = church with moral authority, money, educated elite (understood complex parts of business and laws) VS monarch of divine right (God-given power) crowned in a religious setting Numerous instances of conflicts → John (on the problem of naming archbishops) → Thomas Becket (named archbishop of Canterbury by Henry II) (refused to submit to the authority of Henry II, had him killed in his cathedral) These two instances are from the 11th century though Lot of these issues revolve around the idea of control, who is able to control political power EUROPEAN CONTEXT: THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION In the early 16th century, a german monk published a number of theses accusing the Roman Catholic Church to be corrupt. He did not want to create a new church, but to reform the current one. Educated elite contested the practices of the Church. Wanted to go back to the Bible, to the word of God; they wanted people to have access to it instead of it being kept and controlled by the Church. Religion and language - Latin – the language of law, of the international Catholic Church, of learning and of the Bible and Church ceremonial - English – the language of the people Religion and translation - Translating the Bible (John Wycliffe d.1384, Tyndale version 1526 and others) - Religious censorship (Tyndale burned 1536) - Technological advances: printing → more books could be produced, books could be smuggled in (tiny editions hideable) A number of translators of the Bible were able to spread this specific understanding of the Bible to Britain → important because there are people who did this illegally, and were persecuted, sometimes killed because they were translating it (Tyndale was burned at the stake in the 16th century) Theological conflict between the King and the Church but Henry VIII was still a Roman Catholic. What happened? - In the late 15th, Henry VII, head of the Tudor family, had two sons, Arthur and Henry. Wanting to make their dynasty stronger → you marry the heir to the throne to someone from a strong foreign dynasty = Catherine of Aragon. - Arthur died very soon after the marriage (one year afterwards) - There is a text in the Bible that says if your brother dies, you should marry his widow to take care of her (got a special dispensation from the Pope) - Henry married Catherine, they had a daughter named Mary, but they needed a male heir. Henry became convinced that he couldn’t have a boy because he had committed incest by marrying his brother’s widow. Catherine always claimed she never had sex with Arthur so it was fine. - Henry wrote to the Pope and told him he wanted to annul the marriage (declare religiously that the marriage was never ‘real’). Because the Pope was besties with Catherine nephew, he refused - Henry said fuck you, created his own church and said according to his church, he had never married Catherine, their marriage wasn’t valid. Now free to mary Anne Boleyn - - - They had a daughter named Elizabeth. Anne was from a Protestant family, so she tried to make Henry’s church closer to the Protestant faith. But Anne only had a daughter and several miscarriages Henry convinced himself Anne was cheating on him with her own brother, and so convinced his court to try her as a witch and she was executed. Still needing a male heir, so he married Jane Seymour, who gave him a boy named Eward. (Jane died a few weeks later, complications due to birthing) Remarried → Anne of Cleves (Henry was sent a portrait on which she looked very pretty, but Henry compared her to a horse after seeing her irl), divorced a few months later Remarried → Catherine Howard (cousin of Anne Boleyn), cheated on the king, executed Remarried → Catherine Parr (a widow) who took care of him in his old age Edward VI became king after his father, and led the Church in a more Protestant direction based on advice from his counsel Died very young, never married - Mary I (married to Philip of Spain) became queen, took the Church in a more Catholic way Nicknamed Bloody Mary because she ordered a lot of persecution against Protestants Mary never had a kid + no trae that she was ever pregnant - Elizabeth queen, never had a husband, no kid Protestant, took the Church back into a Protestant direction - Henry VIII took his Church towards Protestantism for very pragmatic reasons, not for any theological or faith-based reason. The break with Rome Happened because of the king’s desire to get an annulment on his marriage with Catherine. Broke with Rome with the Act of Supremacy of 1534 (a political affirmation of power, of the king being a charismatic divine right leader on whom the Pope should not have influence). Once he created the new Church, he needed to be able to control the population → political act = political control → Dissolution of the monasteries (1536-1541) (took away the wealth of monasteries and redistributed it to people who would support him) → Persecution of Catholics Memory of (Bloody) Mary as being very cruel towards Protestants, but it’s no different from Henry VIII. CM7 - 13/03 Protestantism came around in Europe because of the perception that the Catholic Church was corrupt. Some people tried to correct, and took different measures → translation of the Bible to allow masses to read the text and therefore be closer to it. —— There was a persecution of Catholics by Edward / Elizabeth. It’s easy to only remember the persecution of Protestants, but the persecution of Catholics was as big (important for Ireland). RESISTANCE AND COLONISATION - Pilgrimage of Grace (North of England) 1536 Nine Years War (Ireland) 1593-1603 (during the reign of Elizabeth I) Conversion of England → much slower than we assume, because it takes time for religious changes to take place; it’s hard for historians to assess because it’s hard to know what happened in churches. Pilgrimage of Grace - Military campaign → marched to London to force the king to conform to Catholic standards again, it failed. The pilgrimage was shut down very violently - Creeping colonisation (so the King had people who supported him in the North of England) Nine Years War - Resistance of Irish Catholics - Anglo-Irish conflict very representative of the conflicts that continued NON-CONFORMISM: RIGHT TO OWN BELIEFS AND NOT DEFER TO AUTHORITY - Acts of Uniformity (1549, 1552) Establishment of Church of England – oaths of conformity In Protestant churches, people are more able to interpret the Bible however they want since they have access to the text = different sects started to appear. Following the Church of England meant following your monarch. Acts - Making sure the religious practices were uniform across England; they describe the beliefs of the CoE and its practices Oaths - To conform to the acts of uniformity - If your understanding of the Christian religion does not conform, you become a non-conformist → still protestant, but not worshipping God the way the Crown wants you to = traitor NON-CONFORMIST GROUPS - Puritans → 1564; “purify the Church”, left England Non-conformists are also called Dissenters, 1643-47 - Baptists - Congregationalists - Presbyterians - Methodists - Unitarians - Quakers, Moravians (pacifists, refuse to participate in any war) THE REFORM IN SCOTLAND At that point, Mary, the queen, was in exile in France (because the English were threatening her). Helped develop a specific church with a specific structure, different from the one kept by the CoE from Catholicism, more democratic. - Lords of the Congregation: 1557 - Mary was Catholic (queen to a Protestant nation) so the Lords decided to send ??? At the head of the Lords was John Knox, a Presbyterian Protestant (decisions taken by a group of elders) - The lack of hierarchy was a problem for James VI (Mary’s son) when Elizabeth I died and he inherited the throne of England. His reign started with a very complicated situation where some people were opposed to the union of England and Scotland (esp. some English who thought the Scots were savages). James was kinda able to assert his authority, and built a relationship between the two countries. Royal Prerogative: the Divine Right of Kings The question of the relationship of power between the King and Parliament was not resolved. James I believed that the King was indeed at the top of the pyramid, in the Divine Right of Kings (they should basically be able to do whatever they want and Parliament should not get involved in that). In a number of domains, the Divine Right was supposed to take precedence, including: - Foreign affairs → Parliament wanted the King to get involved in a foreign war but the King didn’t want to) - Legal disputes between subjects → sometimes subjects could come and ask the King to take a decision - Control on press, schools, universities, church = the King has control over freedom of expression - Summoning and dissolving the Parliament → if the Parliament was going in a direction he did not like, he could get rid of it, and could take care of everything else without it… … except for taxation. The King could not send anyone to war if the Parliament did not agree with him because he would not have access to the money needed for it. James I was still convinced that Kings were chosen by God and any contestation of that was a contestation of God. KING-IN-PARLIAMENT - Ancient Constitution - All sovereignty comes from God, then the King and goes to the Parliament CHARLES I AND WORSENING OF RELATIONS WITH PARLIAMENT Charles believed he should have all the power + had bad taste in favourites, so tried to push the success of people who were declining in popularity Charles wanted more money to go toward war, and could rely on two forms of taxations: - Pound and tonnage (taxation on import/export), given to the King for life usually, but this time, Parliament didn’t - Ship Money (1634) → could levy it on coastal counties = they had to give ships for the King to go to war, but if they didn’t want to, they could give money instead Charles levied pound and tonnage anyway, without the permission from Parliament, and levied Ship Money even in peacetime and everywhere (not only in coastal counties). When he finally had to call for Parliament to get more money, P told him he needed to agree to a Petition of Rights (1628) (what Parliament’s rights are; supposedly set out the relation between Parliament and King). Charles said fuck you and dissolved Parliament → Personal Rule (1629-1640) SETTING THE STAGE: RELIGION AND SCOTLAND - 1557 Covenant of the Lords of the Congregation 1638 National Covenant → reinforced the right of Scottish people to ??? which Charles did not like The attempt by the English to impose a hierarchy led to the Bishops’ Wars (1639 and 1640) (the Scottish did not want bishops) - April-May: Short Parliament Told the King he better listen to them, but still re-dissolved the Parliament again. - November: Long Parliament Parliament started a Civil War Tense conflict between the King and Parliament + tense religious conflict between England and Scotland → English Civil Wars DISMANTLING OF “PERSONAL RULE” & IMPOSITION OF PARLIAMENTARY RULE - 1640 Grand Remonstrance - John Pym: Parliament “the fountain of law, the great council of the kingdom, the highest court…to prevent evils to come…and remove evils present.” - 1640 Triennial Act → Parliament should meet three times a year ENGLISH CIVIL WARS: A SHORT SUMMARY - - Roundheads (Parliament + Puritans, non-conformists) VS. Cavaliers (King + Church of England people) 1642-1646: First English Civil Wars → armies of Parliament coming from the South, armies of Scotland from the North, Parliament captured the King. Were not trying to kill the King, they were fighting against rule. But realised the King allied with the Scots 1647-1648: Second English Civil War; Parliament recaptured the King and executed him in 1649 CM7 - 20/03 COMMONWEALTH, THE RESTORATION, THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION PARLIAMENT FIGHTING FOR ITS POWER THE LEVELLERS: THE PUTNEY DEBATES 1647 Army soldiers gathered in a church and debated what kind of political world they wanted. The proposals they made were absolutely revolutionary. Native or natural rights: - Freedom of worship - Freedom from conscription - All men equal under the law - All laws should be good & not to the detriment of individuals Political rights: - Suffrage for all men over 21 (not servants, beggars, Royalists) - Annual parliamentary elections, members serve one term - Right to remain silent before a court - Right to call witnesses in defence - Trials in front of a 12-man jury of local men, freely chosen - No hindrance to free trade - No one to be imprisoned for debt - Abolition of death penalty (except for murder) Parliament said that this was ‘destructive to Parliament and government’. This kind of revolutionary discourse is usually associated with a group called the Levellers (wanted everyone to be on the same level, have the same amount of power, wanted equality). Even though there were some radicals who wanted change, they were not the ones who won. THE COMMONWEALTH AND THE PROTECTORATE - Oliver Cromwell was chosen by Parliament to be a Protector of the Realm (the Commonwealth). With the help of Parliament, passed: - The Instrument of Government 1653, unified England, Ireland and Scotland governments Cromwell was a strict Puritan and was against any form of entertainment → closehouses, pubs, game houses… were all closed and more importantly, Christmas was banned. People were not happy about that. Parliament offered him the Crown in 16?? But he refused. He died in 1658, his son Richard succeeded him, but in 1659 the army called the King back because of the inability of Richard to be King. RESTORATION, 1660 Charles II, son of Charles I → same kind of mechanism as with his father. He had experience of what life in exile was, so he wanted a good relationship with Parliament, ruled fairly unproblematically. Still believed in the Divine RIght but knew he had to compromise. He was Protestant, but his own personal beliefs were closer to Roman Catholicism. Had to remain Protestant to remain in power. Theatres opened again → “restoration comedy” = fun, bawdry… Charles II called Parliament regularly to stay on good terms with it. His brother, James II THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION Parliament deposed James II and asked William and Mary of Orange to take the throne 1688: Religious and political causes James II had a Catholic wife and was believed to be a Catholic himself, but when he got on the throne, Parliament wanted to be sure he would protect the Church of England, which he wasn’t inclined to do. - 1686: Declaration of Indulgence → royal prerogative, smth the King does without Parliament agreement. Allowed Catholics (and Dissenters) to exercise their faith. Church of England protested against this and Parliament refused to agree to it = strong tensions. James II didn’t have a son, which meant his heir would be Protestant, but then his wife got pregnant. Parliament prepared, and tried to find a prospective heir. Mary gave birth to baby James III, a Catholic. Parliament sprung to action → - Mary Stuart, sister to Charles II and James II, married William II of Orange - James II had a daughter, Mary II, who married William III, son to Mary Stuart and William II of Orange - These two, Mary II and William III, were Protestant. Parliament wrote to them and told them they could be King and Queen, if they signed the ????, they said yes 1688: A Glorious Revolution? - Reaffirmation of the strength of Parliament They were not against monarchy, they wanted a King, but wanted a King to give more strength to Parliament - Triennial Act 1694 Forced the King to call for Parliament every three years - Scotland and Ireland Often called Glorious because it was seen as “bloodless”, esp. because there were few wars in England, but Scotland did not want the English Parliament to choose the King, William had to drive an army to Scotland to affirm his position. In Scotland, there were Jacobites, who wanted to keep James II on the throne. Same thing in Ireland. Jacobite revolutions in the 18th century. Battle of the Boyne, 11 July 1689 - 1716 Septennial Act 1911 Parliament Act (reaffirmation of the House of Commons) 2011 Fixed-Term Parliament Act (introduced for the first time the fact that in Britain parliaments have to be elected after a certain time) THE BILL OF RIGHTS Quoted today as being one of the basis of fundamental freedoms, rights and liberties, not only in the UK but also in the Americas. (DON’T MIX UP U.S. BILL OF RIGHTS WITH THIS ONE) - Constitute an army to defend Scots - Made sure of taxes - Made sure freedom of speech was guaranteed → strongly linked with freedom of religion; freedom of speech allows a number of Protestant sects to be created and to develop Two very different revolutions: Civil Wars (chaos before the monarchy came back) and Glorious Revolution which ended in Parliament securing its strength and issuing documents for that purpose. CM9 - 27/03 THINKING MORE FREELY After the Civil wars: freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom of the press Freedom of speech(/thought) is linked to freedom of religion because it gives meaning to the world around you. - How freedom of speech and of religion are linked? - How freedom of speech and political power are linked? - When and how was freedom of the press won in Britain? - Ep RESTORATION AND RELIGIOUS FREEDOM James II had officially converted to Catholicism, and in the late 17th, this was unacceptable to (Protestant) Parliament. Catholicism had been seen as treason until then. With the Restoration, one thing James II had to give to Parliament was for the CoE to be reinforced. There was a growing movement towards more religious toleration (Quaker Act 1661). There was a fear of religious dissent, and it created the Clarendon Code (1661-1665) which built a narrow state church. The King himself fought against this Code; it was a moment when Parliament and the Crown were fighting (P wanted a narrow state church; C wanted more toleration). Edict of Nantes (in France) → religious toleration; revoked in 1665 and only allowed Catholicism 1673 and 1678 Test Acts → did not allow Catholics or non-Conformists to hold certain position of state; people had to swear an oath if they wanted to be a soldier,... oaths which included stuff from the Protestant denomination, which Catholics and others would not take if they cared for their souls. 1672 and 1687 Declarations of Indulgence → by James II to give more religious freedom to Catholics, Parliament were against them THE DEVELOPMENT OF FREE SPEECH How would you spread your faith if you’re not allowed to speak or print things related to it? Controlling the press Strict control of speech by the government (esp. of print). In Tudor times, pre-publication censorship of books (1538) to avoid heresy and blasphemy. This continued with the Stuart with the Lilburne case: Lilburne imported censored books to sell them in British territory; he was arrested and put in jail (1638) because the books he sold encouraged individual rights. During the Civil Wars, at first, you had a flowering of printing, the regulations were very lax but very quickly the commonwealth realised controlling freedom of speech was controlling the order of the kingdom so they passed an act (???) Licensing Act (printing) in 1662 (but lapsed in 1695 = was not renewed). In the late 17th century there was a flowering of pamphlets and development of newspapers. John Wilkes → became a symbol of freedom of speech CIVIL WARS AND FREE SPEECH - Pamphlets - Licensing act 1643 - Areopagitica, John Milton, 1644, “Give me the liberty to know, to utter, and to argue freely according to conscience, above all liberties.” → Pamphlet he wrote in defence of freedom of speech; he fought against pre-publication censorship. He was unsuccessful in this in his lifetime. Restoration and freedom of the press - 1663: Licensing of the press Act - 1664: John Twyn → printer executed for having printed the idea that monarchs should answer to their subjects (= treason) - 1695: Licensing Act allowed to lapse What the press could publish was still tightly controlled. WILKES AND LIBERTY - 1762-1763: The North Briton in which he published satirical attacks on the PM, for which he was arrested. Argued that he had Parliamentary privilege and was freed. Continued writing and publishing, got into trouble again for writing and publishing a pornographical poem. Was expelled from Parliament and fled to France, then elected back into it (expelled and re-elected into Parliament 3 times total) - 1771: Society for the Supporters of the Bill of Rights → association augmenting for a reform of Parliament. - 1774: Parliamentary Register → The quest for freedom of speech and of the press started with politics with the ability to attack the PM and to print what people in Parliament were saying so people could have some scrutiny over government ideas. TOWARDS MORE RELIGIOUS FREEDOM Catholics were still not? in a great position. - Jacobite rebellion 1745-1746 - British were fighting against the French catholics (fear that catholics would become enemies of Britain) - Papist Act 1778 → Parliament agreed with it, the people did not: did not want catholics to have right of worship, retaliated with the Gordon riots in 1780 (introduced the idea of mobs). Provided proof of the strength of anti-catholics sentiment, which convinced Parliament that Catholics needed help → Catholic Relief Act 1791 - Jewish Naturalisation Act 1753 → allowed Jewish people to acquire British nationality, but the popular reaction was so negative that the Act was repealed CM9 - 03/04 - Individual rights Suffrage (how did it expand, who did it expand to and not to?) RIGHTS OF THE INDIVIDUAL - - Definition History Exceptions NATURAL RIGHTS? There are a number of theories about where rights come from? Are they part of our nature as human beings, or do they come from being in a society. → John Locke, Two Treatises of Gov. 1689, explains where gov comes from. Human beings are born absolutely free, but give up part of it in order to enjoy the benefits of a governed society. Your freedom belongs to you naturally, but you consent to having someone limit it to live in a workable society. There is a need for people to consent to being governed this way. (see quote on PP) As far as the government is concerned, there is a right to rebel. → Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan 1651. Believed that freedom for all humans was a dangerous state. People agree to give up some of their liberties and to give it to a form of absolute power able to guarantee peace and the end of violence. Theory of the body politic = the King is the head of the body, the society is the rest of the body; the whole society belongs to the same body, the body of the King. It’s a theory of absolute power, it says you have to follow the King because the King is the head. Both of these theories are based on contractual theories → you make a contract with someone (society or king), and are rewarded with peace CENTRAL RIGHTS - Private Property (see Locke quote on PP) → intimately linked with the right to freedom, essential concept for Locke. In a society where power is linked to what you own, it’s very important. - Habeas Corpus → you cannot be put in jail without a proper legal decision being taken. Today is considered as the central tenet of rights both in the UK and the U.S. INTERNATIONAL INFLUENCE → American Constitution is heavily influenced by British ideas/legal system In 1669, John Locke was commissioned to write the constitution of Carolina FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS - Thomas Paine, The Rights of Man, 1791 → instrumental in presenting what fundamental human rights were. Paine was not an aristocrat, he moved to the colonies in 1774, where he became a radical journalist. Believed in liberty through revolution. Supported and defended the French Revolution, visited the country during the revolution. As a reaction to Burke’s book about the revolution in France, he wrote The Rights of Man. Defended a right to life, liberty, freedom of speech; though that taxes should be used to defend rights. Because this was such a radical book, he was almost sentenced to prison, but escaped to France, where he lived for a while and was given French citizenship. He was sentenced to death there but escaped it absolutely by chance, and was able to flee to the U.S., where he later died (having lived on the money that american revolutionists made him). - Mary Wollestonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Women, 1792 → wrote it as a reaction to Burke’s book as well, focusing on defending the rights of women. She believed marriage was a trap for women (at the time, waged work of women increased, which allowed for a little more independence, but marriage still deprived women of all their possessions). EXCEPTIONS An Empire based on unfree labour UNFREE LABOUR - Indenture - Impressment / press gangs → kidnapping, but for the navy - Slavery A SHORT HISTORY OF SLAVERY - A practice dating back to the Antiquity - Portuguese slavers - The specificities of the Atlantic Trade - The involvement of the British Started with Portuguese, but very quickly the British became central to it. The specificity of the Atlantic Slave Trade was that it made slavery a hereditary condition. THE ABOLITIONIST MOVEMENT - Religious motivations → “Am I not a man and a brother?” poster; need to convert these people to Christianism, by extension you cannot keep them as slaves - Moral motivations - Financial motivations → slavery was expensive ABOLISHING SLAVERY – KEY DATES - 1772 → Somerset case, court judgement about whether or not slavery was allowed in Britain; decided that any enslaved person would automatically be free - 1783 → Zong case, slave ship travelling from Africa to the Caribbeans on which the captain decided to throw overboard half of their ‘cargo’ because they had not enough water, and to land in the Caribbeans and claim an insurance case → case recognising slaves as people - 1788 → Dolben Act, - 1807 → Abolition of the slave trade, not of slavery. The idea was that if you cut the supply, then enslavers will have to treat the slaves they owned better (didn’t work) - 1833-1838 → Abolition of the slavery (5 year period to allow enslavers to transition from slavery to apprenticeship) COLONISATION CLOSER TO HOME CM9 - 10/04 - Where do rights come from in modern British society? What kind of rights were recognised? Was there one or several rights that were considered above the rest? THE RIGHT TO VOTE Reform, Charter and suffrage The right to vote as a whole set of ways that you can be politically active - What kind of political activism was possible outside of voting? Who had the right to vote until 1832? What did the 1832 law change? What remained? What were the criteria to give people the right to vote? What was the radical constellation of the electoral system? FACTORS OF CHANGE - First of all, this is not completely new. Enlarging suffrage didn’t just appear in the early 19th century (Putney Debates,...). What changed was the French contagion. → 1789 French Revolution: hopes and fears (fears of revolution/repetition of Civil Wars) with these fears came government repressive measures. - Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), “When men play God, presently they behave like devils.” - Provoked both Thomas Paine and Mary Wollestonecraft (and others) into responses The Contrast 1793 → voir PP → French Liberty depicted as mindlessly violent (using the imagery of Medusa, in a dress of fire standing on a beheaded body, holding its head on a spike), in opposition to British Liberty (serene, sitting under a tree holding the M.C and the scales of justice) SOCIAL TRANSFORMATIONS The economy of the country was changing in a massive way. The industrial revolution meant less reliance on land for richer people. Having capital, having industry, that was going to give your more power and more wealth. = rich people ended up living in cities rather than the countryside. = rise of the professions (lawyers, bankers, journalists,...) which were not land based, were wealthy and wanted political representation. They were represented through new competing forces: - Whig → liberal, cosmopolitan aristocrats, urban side of society, wanted more right for parliament to decide on succession, more religious toleration - Tory → defended the existing traditional feudal times, defended the Anglican Church, social traditionalism, passive obedience AN INTENSE POLITICAL LIFE A political life/political activism was not limited to voting which was important because only a tiny part of society could vote. Others were involved through new forms of sociability (period of development of coffee houses, pubs, public meetings). - Increasingly flourishing print materials – more pamphlets, more newspapers; which allowed these political debates to happen - Development of petitions – nothing new, but developed really strongly in late 18th-early 19th centuries. → Chartists, Corn Laws,... A lot of petitioning against slavery also. - Subscriptions also developed (giving money towards a cause) (women had some disposable income they could give) - People could take part in boycotts. Important in the fight against slavery → sugar cane boycott (a way for women to express their desires – put in tea by women, tea time was important for women to be politically active; they were in charge of buying it as well) Although voting was important, it was not the main way to be politically active. Chronology → see PP - 1829 Catholic Relief Act – gave Catholics the right to vote and sit in P. - 1832 Great Reform Act – - 1839-1848 Chartist mouvement - 1858 – gave the right to sit in P. to Jewish people - 1867 2nd Reform Act - 1884 3rd Reform Act - 1918-1928 FRANCHISE IN THE BEGINNING OF THE 19TH CENTURY There was no homogenous suffrage system over the UK, it was dependent on where you were. Led to some problems - 10% of adult male population enfranchised - A two-tier system - Counties → could vote only if you owned enough land - Boroughs → local decision, no uniform way to organise votings - “Rotten boroughs” → very few voters for the same amount of members in Parliament “Pocket boroughs” → one major land-owner/voter who had so much influence that they would get to decide who (only one) would be candidate RIOTS, SEDITION AND REPRESSION People, esp. the new bourgeoisie was not happy with this. They could not vote, but still wanted a say, so they organised. - Corresponding Societies → here to demand more rights to universal suffrage - As a reaction to that, you had states proclamation against meetings asking too strongly for more rights, and Combination Acts (1798, 1800) → fight against agitation among workers (anti-trade union acts, here to avoid workers organising for better conditions and better rep) - The most famous of these meetings was the Peterloo Massacre in August 1819. Thousands of people gathered because they wanted the right to vote for more people, the cavalry charged and 11 people died (2 women), 400 people wounded → extremely shocking, first large scale demonstration that led to the repression. As a reaction to that event, the government passed the Six Acts (suppressed radical newspapers, tried to more tightly control the societies and workers). WOMEN’S ROLE IN POLITICS Until then, two spheres which were not supposed to touch (men in public, women in private). By the 18th century, there were a number of laws that cemented that women lost all their rights/money upon marriage. In practice, this was already changing because women had wage-work. (Women already had work outside the home / that made money) As they got their own wage (legally belonged to the husband), they had some independence. In practice, if you were a single woman, you were allowed to own things (helped by the development of urban life, women lived outside the family house). Because of the cristallisation of the separate spheres, in the late 18th century, the government tried to ban them from political life, but women still wanted to participate in it. There was more informal political activism, more locally (would support local politicians). The theory of separate spheres also worked in favour of women → if their role is to make sure morality is preserved, through the keeping of the home and the raising of children, they not only have the ability but the duty to intervene to keep the moral order. 1832 REFORM ACT: PIVOTAL OR INSUFFICIENT? - First major comprehensive revision of political representation. It was presented as kind of a pivotal moment for reform - There was a change in boroughs so that rotten and pocket boroughs disappeared - New towns and new population centres taken into account in order to give them some form of rep, some members of Parliament - The criteria for franchise was changed → now, anybody owning anything worth more than 10 pounds, allowed to vote. Why? There was a belief that citizenship was linked to owning property → if you don’t own anything, you have no incentive to work for the global good = the electorate doubled (18% of the adult male population, more than any other country in Europe at the time) - Public ballots → made it possible for people to manipulate, threaten,... others to vote for them Not a pivotal reform, it was a reform to appease. Not a revolutionary reform to give more power to more people, but to acknowledge that the elite had changed CALLS FOR FURTHER REFORM - 1839-1848 Chartists movement, they wanted universal male suffrage, secret ballot, annual Parliaments,.. - London Working Men’s Association 1836 - People’s Charter 1838 - “To seek by every legal means to place call classes of society in possession of their equal, political and social rights” - Radical demands - Large petition - No results, but demonstrated the voice of the working-class people Expanding the electorate - All male heads of households could vote, lodgers paying more than 10 pounds a year could vote - 1867 2nd Reform Act - 1872 Ballot Act - 1884 3rd Reform Act → extended to the countryside WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE - Women were asking for the right to vote, a number of societies were created to this end. They first got the right to vote locally (if they were widows or single) - 1867 National Society for Women’s Suffrage - 1869 Municipal Franchise Act - - 1880 Isle of Man 1893 New Zealand 1894 Local Government Act 1890 Millicent Fawcett – National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies - 1902 Australia 1903 Emmeline Pankhurst – Women’s Social & Political 1918 Representation of the People Act 1928 Equal Franchise Act Suffragists → wanted to get the right to vote through negotiations Suffragettes → riots and protests to fight for the right to vote All men over 20 could vote, but women over 30 (why? So many young men died in the war, if women could vote at 20, there would be more women voting than men) until 1928.
