!
!
Benoît'THÉVARD'
"#$%&'#!(%!)*!+,#-)-%.&%!(%#!#/&-,',#!
(%!)0*$+1#2$,'+/)%!
Séminaire'du'20'janvier'2012'
!
!
!!!!!!"#$%&'#!(%!)*!+,#-)-%.&%!(%#!#/&-,',#!(%!)0*$+1#2$,'+/)%!!!!!!!!!!!3,4-.*-+%!(5!67!8*.9-%+!67:6'
!
!
6!
!
;.%! (%#! &*+*&',+-#'-<5%#! (%! ./'+%! ,$/<5%=! &0%#'! )*! &%+'-'5(%! <5%! ./5#! *))/.#! 9-9+%! (%#!
+5$'5+%#>!?5@-)!#0*A-##%!(%!)*!#-'5*'-/.!,&/./4-<5%=!,.%+A,'-<5%!/5!&)-4*'-<5%=!./5#!#*9/.#!
<5%! )*! '%.(*.&%! $*##,%! .%! +%##%4B)%+*! %.! +-%.! C! )0,9/)5'-/.! D5'5+%>! E*! &+/-##*.&%!
%F$/.%.'-%))%! (%! ./#! &/.#/44*'-/.#=! (%! ./#! ,4-##-/.#! /5! +%8%'#=! (5! $+,)19%4%.'! #5+! )%#!
+%##/5+&%#=! (%! )*! $/$5)*'-/.! 4/.(-*)%=! (%#! (,$)*&%4%.'#! /5! (%! )*! (%''%! (%#! G'*'#! .%!
$%59%.'!&/.(5-+%=!C!'%+4%=!<5@C!5.%!-.9%+#-/.!(%!./4B+%5#%#!'%.(*.&%#>!
!
H*.#!&%#!&/.(-'-/.#=!-)!%#'!%F'+I4%4%.'!&/4$)%F%!(%!D*-+%!(%#!#&,.*+-/#!$+/#$%&'-D#!(%!)/.A!
'%+4%! J85#<50%.! 67K7! $*+! %F%4$)%L! B*#,#! #5+! 5.! D/.&'-/..%4%.'! (%! #/&-,',! C! B/5'! (%!
#/5DD)%!%'!%.!)-4-'%!(%!+5$'5+%>!
M5-#<5@-)!%#'!-4$/##-B)%!(0*.'-&-$%+!*9%&!%F*&'-'5(%!)%!(,)*-!%'!)0-.'%.#-',!(%!&%#!&N/&#!C!9%.-+=!
./#! A/59%+.%4%.'#! D/.'! )%! $*+-! <5@-)! .0O! %.! *5+*! $*#! %'! 4-#%.'! '/5'! #5+! )0*&N*+.%4%.'!
'N,+*$%5'-<5%=! +%#'*.'! *5! &N%9%'! (05.%! &+/-##*.&%! ,&/./4-<5%! %.! ,'*'! (%! 4/+'! &)-.-<5%>!
H,#/+4*-#=!-)!%#'!'+/$!'*+(!$/5+!'/5'!'+*.#D/+4%+!*9*.'!&%#!A+*.(#!&N*.A%4%.'#>!P)!%#'!(/.&!
$+,D,+*B)%!)%#!*&&%$'%+!%'!(%!)%#!*.'-&-$%+!*9%&!)0/B8%&'-D!(0*4,)-/+%+!)*!+,#-)-%.&%>!
!
Théorie'de'la'résilience'
E%! 4/'! +,#-)-%.&%! %#'! 5.! '%+4%! %#'! -##5! (5! 9%+B%! )*'-.! +%#-)-/=! -+%>! Q%! 9%+B%! *! (%5F!
#-A.-D-&*'-/.#!R! #*5'%+! %.! *++-1+%=! +%B/.(-+! /5! #%! +%&5)%+! 9-9%4%.'>! "5! STPP14%! #-1&)%! )%#!
*.A)*-#!/.'!+%'%.5!)*!./'-/.!(%!+%B/.(!*5!'+*9%+#!(5!4/'!U!+%#-)-%.&%!V=!*)/+#!<5%!)%#!D+*.W*-#!
/.!A*+(,!)*!./'-/.!(%!+%&5)=!(%!+%./.&%4%.'!C!'+*9%+#!)%!9%+B%!U!+,#-)-%+!V>!"58/5+(0N5-=!&%!
4/'! %#'! 5'-)-#,! (*.#! (%! 45)'-$)%#! (/4*-.%#! %'! *9%&! (%#! #-A.-D-&*'-/.#! '+1#! 9*+-*B)%#=!
85#'%4%.'! C! &*5#%! (%! &%'! ,&*+'! <50-)! O! *! %5! %.'+%! )%#! (%5F! )*.A5%#>! Q0%#'! $/5+<5/-! -)! %#'!
'/58/5+#!-4$/+'*.'!(%!$+,&-#%+!)%!&/.'%F'%>!
X.!'+/59%!(%#!+,D,+%.&%#!C!)*!+,#-)-%.&%!(*.#!)%#!(/4*-.%#!'%&N.-<5%#!'%)#!<5%!)*!$NO#-<5%=!
)0-.D/+4*'-<5%=! )0,&/./4-%=! )0*+4%4%.'! /5! )%! #$*'-*)=! 4*-#! ,A*)%4%.'! (*.#! (%#! (/4*-.%#!
$)5#!&/4$)%F%#!&/44%!)0,&/)/A-%=!)*!B-/)/A-%!/5!)0,'5(%!(%#!#O#'14%#!#/&-*5F>!H%5F!9-#-/.#!
#%!(-#'-.A5%.'!$/5+!%F$)-<5%+!&%!<50%#'!)*!+,#-)-%.&%>!
M/5+!)%#!#O#'14%#!/5!)%#!+,#%*5F!'%&N.-<5%#=!)*!+,#-)-%.&%!&*+*&',+-#%!)*!&*$*&-',!C!&/.'-.5%+!
C! D/5+.-+! )%! 4I4%! #%+9-&%! 4*)A+,!(%#! &N/&#! /5! (%#! $%+'5+B*'-/.#! -4$/+'*.'%#>! M/5+! )%#!
#O#'14%#! #/&-/2,&/)/A-<5%#! /5! )%#! ,&/#O#'14%#=! )*! $%+'5+B*'-/.! -4$)-<5%! 5.%! *(*$'*'-/.=!
9/-+%!5.%!+,/+A*.-#*'-/.!*D-.!(%!$+,#%+9%+!)%5+!-(%.'-',!%'!)%5+#!D/.&'-/.#!$+-.&-$*)%#>!H*.#!
5.!&*#=!-)!#0*A-'!(/.&!(%!+%9%.-+!*5!4I4%!,'*'!<50*5!(,$*+'=!(*.#!)0*5'+%=!)0*(*$'*'-/.!%'!)*!
+,/+A*.-#*'-/.!#/.'!%.9-#*A,%#>!
!
!!!!!!"#$%&'#!(%!)*!+,#-)-%.&%!(%#!#/&-,',#!(%!)0*$+1#2$,'+/)%!!!!!!!!!!!3,4-.*-+%!(5!67!8*.9-%+!67:6'
!
!
Y!
!
!
Résilience'de'quoi'?'
E*!4/.(-*)-#*'-/.!%#'!)0,'*$%!5)'-4%!(%!)0%DD-&-%.&%!(%#!#/&-,',#!N54*-.%#!%'!(%#!,&/./4-%#!
(0,&N%))%>!M*+!(,D-.-'-/.=!)*!+,#-)-%.&%!#0/$$/#%!C!)0%DD-&-%.&%=!&0%#'!$/5+<5/-!-)!%#'!-4$/+'*.'!
(%! '+/59%+! 5.! ,<5-)-B+%! %.'+%! &%#! (%5F! &*+*&',+-#'-<5%#>! P)! .0O! *! (/.&! $*#! (%! +,#-)-%.&%!
$/##-B)%!(*.#!5.!#O#'14%!A)/B*)-#,=!&%.'+*)-#,!%'!5.-D/+4-#,>!Q0%#'!5.%!,9/)5'-/.!-.9%+#%!<5%!
./5#! (%9+/.#!/B#%+9%+! $/5+! +%9%.-+! C! 5.! .-9%*5! (%! +,#-)-%.&%! *&&%$'*B)%! %'! +%.(+%! )%!
#O#'14%!$)5#!(5+*B)%>!H*.#!&%!&*(+%!-)!%#'!5+A%.'!(%!#0-.',+%##%+!C!)*!+,#-)-%.&%!)/&*)%=!&@%#'2
C2(-+%!(05.%!&/445.%!/5!(05.%!&/445.*5',!(%! &/445.%#=!(05.!B*##-.!(%!9-%>!P)!D*5(+*!
'%.-+! &/4$'%! (%#! -.'%+*&'-/.#! (-+%&'%#! *9%&! )%#! .-9%*5F! (0,&N%))%! -.D,+-%5+#! J&-'/O%.#=!
D*4-))%#!%'!*&'%5+#!)/&*5FL!%'!#5$,+-%5+#!J(,$*+'%4%.'=!+,A-/.=!Z'*'=!Z5+/$%L>!
!
Résilience'par'rapport'à'quoi'?'
E%!#O#'14%!(*.#!)%<5%)!./5#!,9/)5/.#=!(/.'!)%!D/.&'-/..%4%.'!%#'!B*#,!#5+!)0,&/./4-%!(%!
4*+&N,=! .%! $%5'! '%.-+! #*.#! 5.%! &+/-##*.&%! $%+4*.%.'%! (%! &%))%2&-=! &@%#'2C2(-+%! 5.!
$+,)19%4%.'!'/58/5+#!&+/-##*.'!#5+!)%#!+%##/5+&%#!4-.,+*)%#=!D/##-)%#!%'!#5+!)*!B-/(-9%+#-',=!
5.%!*5A4%.'*'-/.!(%#!(,&N%'#!%'!(%#!$/))5'-/.#>!Z.!*''%-A.*.'!)%!$-&!(%#!+%##/5+&%#!D/##-)%#=!
)0N54*.-',! &/.#'*'%! <5%! )%#! &N*.A%4%.'#! <5-! -.'%+9-%..%.'! (,8C! %'! <5-! 9/.'! -.'%+9%.-+!
$+/&N*-.%4%.'! #/.'! '/5#! )-,#! )%#! 5.#! *5F! *5'+%#>! [/5#! *))/.#! (/.&! 9-9+%! (%! A+*.(%#!
$%+'5+B*'-/.#!(*.#!)%#!(/4*-.%#!(%!)0,.%+A-%=!(%!)0,&/./4-%=!(5!&)-4*'=!(%!)*!B-/(-9%+#-',=!(%!
)0%*5! %'! (5! #/&-*)>! Q0%#'! (/.&! %.! $+,9-#-/.! (%! '/5#! &%#! &N*.A%4%.'#! <5-! #5+9-%.(+/.'! (%!
4*.-1+%!&%+'*-.%=!<5%!./5#!(%9/.#!*4,)-/+%+!./'+%!+,#-)-%.&%>!P)!.%! #0*A-'!(/.&!$*#!(05.%!
+,#-)-%.&%! #$,&-D-<5%=! 4*-#! $)5'\'! (05.%! +,#-)-%.&%! A)/B*)%! /5! #O#',4-<5%! D*&%! C! .0-4$/+'%!
<5%)!'O$%!(%!&N/&>!
!
Les'critères'de'la'résilience'
E%#!&+-'1+%#!$%+4%''*.'!(0,9*)5%+!)*!+,#-)-%.&%!(05.!#O#'14%!/.'!,',!(,D-.-#!$*+!)0/B#%+9*'-/.!
(%! #O#'14%#! #/&-*5F2,&/)/A-<5%#! J,&/#O#'14%#=! $/$5)*'-/.#! N54*-.%#! #/54-#%#! C! (%#!
&*'*#'+/$N%#L>! P)#! #/.'! (/.&! -##5#! (05.%! *.*)O#%! '%.*.'! &/4$'%! (%#! *#$%&'#! #/&-*5F=!
B-/)/A-<5%#=! &5)'5+%)#=! ,&/./4-<5%#! /5! '%&N.-<5%#>! [/5#! +%4*+<5%+/.#=! %.! (,'*-))*.'! &%#!
&+-'1+%#=!<50-)#!#/.'!%DD%&'-9%4%.'!/$$/#,#!C!)*!)/A-<5%!(0%DD-&-%.&%!*&'5%))%>!
!
!
!!!!!!"#$%&'#!(%!)*!+,#-)-%.&%!(%#!#/&-,',#!(%!)0*$+1#2$,'+/)%!!!!!!!!!!!3,4-.*-+%!(5!67!8*.9-%+!67:6'
!
!
]!
!
Diversité'
H*.#! )%#! #/&-,',#! -.(5#'+-%))%#=! &0%#'! )0%#$+-'! (%! &/4$,'-'-/.! <5-! (/4-.%! %'! &%=! (1#! )%! $)5#!
8%5.%!^A%!R!I'+%!)%!4%-))%5+=!)%!$)5#!%DD-&-%.'=!A*A.%+!)%!$)5#!(0*+A%.'=!$/##,(%+!$)5#!<5%!)%#!
*5'+%#>! M/5+! 4*F-4-#%+! )%#! $+/D-'#! D-.*.&-%+#! A,.,+,#! $*+! ./'+%! #O#'14%! &%.'+*)-#,=! -)! D*5'!
5.-D/+4-#%+!%'!D*-+%!(-#$*+*_'+%!)*!9*+-,',=!*5A4%.'%+!)*!#$,&-*)-#*'-/.!%'!)*!#'*.(*+(-#*'-/.>!
E%#!,&/)%#!<5-!D/+4%.'!)%#!,)-'%#!#%!45)'-$)-%.'!%'!./5#!9-9/.#!(*.#!5.!4/.(%!(0%F$%+'-#%=!
#%5)%! $/##-B-)-',! $/5+! -.9%.'%+! (%#! $+/&,(,#! %'! A,+%+! (%#! 5#-.%#=! &%.'+*)%#! 'N%+4-<5%#! /5!
%F$)/-'*'-/.#!*A+-&/)%#!'/58/5+#!$)5#!A+*.(%#!%'!'/58/5+#!$)5#!&/4$)%F%#>!
M*+!*-))%5+#=!-)!%#'!B%*5&/5$!$)5#!+%.'*B)%!%'!&/4$,'-'-D!(0*&N%'%+!'/5#!#%#!$+/(5-'#!(*.#!5.!
4I4%!)-%5=!C!5.!4I4%!D/5+.-##%5+!/5!(0*9/-+!5.!&)-%.'!5.-<5%=!&%!<5-!)-4-'%!)%#!(,$%.#%#!
&/44%+&-*)%#=!(%!$+/#$%&'-/.=!(%!$5B)-&-',>!
Z.! `+*.&%=! aKb! (%! )0,)%&'+-&-',! $+/(5-'%! %#'! .5&),*-+%=! cKb! (%#! #5+D*&%#! *A+-&/)%#! #/.'!
5'-)-#,%#!$/5+!)%#!A+*.(%#!&5)'5+%#!/5!)%#!D/5++*A%#=!aKb! (%#!%4$)/-#!#/.'!(*.#! )%!#%&'%5+!
'%+'-*-+%>!E%#!%F%4$)%#!#/.'!./4B+%5F!<5-!-))5#'+%.'!)*!$%+'%!(%!(-9%+#-',!%'!&%!<5-!%#'!9*)*B)%!
$/5+!)%#! #O#'14%#!(%! $+/(5&'-/.!)0%#'!*5##-!$/5+! )*! &/.#/44*'-/.>!M*+! %F%4$)%=!dKb! (%#!
4/O%.#! (%! '+*.#$/+'! (,$%.(%.'! (5! $,'+/)%=! a7b! (%! )*! ./5++-'5+%! %#'! *&N%',%! %.!
#5$%+4*+&N,e!
Q%''%! 5.-D/+4-',! +%.(! )%! #O#'14%! %F'+I4%4%.'! 95).,+*B)%=! &/44%! ./5#! )0*9/.#! &/.#'*',!
)/+#! (%! &%+'*-.#! ,91.%4%.'#! J.5*A%! 9/)&*.-<5%=! A+19%! (*.#! )%#! +*DD-.%+-%#! $,'+/)-1+%#L!<5-!
N%5+%5#%4%.'! .0/.'! $*#! (5+,>! M/5+! +%4,(-%+! C! &%)*=! -)! D*5'! +*$-(%4%.'! (-9%+#-D-%+!
)0%.#%4B)%!(%#!#%&'%5+#!(%!)*!#/&-,',=!<5@-)!#0*A-##%!(%!&%!<5-!%#'!$+/(5-'!J$*+!5.%!%.'+%$+-#%!
/5!5.%!%F$)/-'*'-/.!*A+-&/)%L!/5!(%!&%!<5-!%#'!&/.#/44,!J*)-4%.'*'-/.=!&N*5DD*A%=!*&&1#!*5F!
#/-.#eL>! Q0%#'! 5.%! &/.(-'-/.! -.(-#$%.#*B)%! $/5+! ,9-'%+! )0%DD/.(+%4%.'! %'! $%+4%''+%! *5F!
'%++-'/-+%#!(%!#0*(*$'%+!*5F!&N*.A%4%.'#>!
!
Modularité'
E%! D*-'! (%! 9-9+%! (*.#! 5.! #O#'14%! %.'-1+%4%.'! A)/B*)-#,! &/.#'-'5%! 5.! *DD*-B)-##%4%.'! (%! )*!
+,#-)-%.&%>!E%#!$+/(5&'%5+#!%F$/+'%.'!)%5+#!$+/(5&'-/.#!%'!)%#!&/.#/44*'%5+#!-4$/+'%.'!&%!
<5@-)#! &/.#/44%.'>! f/5#! #/.'! (,$%.(*.'#=! *5! <5/'-(-%.=! (5! B/.! D/.&'-/..%4%.'! (5!
&/44%+&%! -.'%+.*'-/.*)=! (5! #O#'14%! B/5+#-%+=! (%! '+*.#$/+'#! ./4B+%5F! %'! D-*B)%#>! Q%''%!
,9/)5'-/.! *! &/.(5-'! C! 5.%! <5*#-2(-#$*+-'-/.! (%#! &-+&5-'#! &/5+'#! %'! (5! )-%.! )/&*)! %'! )*!
A)/B*)-#*'-/.!D*-'!$%#%+!5.!+-#<5%!(%!+,*&'-/.!%.!&N*_.%!&/44%!)/+#!(05.%!$*.(,4-%!/5!(05.!
&+*#N!B/5+#-%+>!
!
!!!!!!"#$%&'#!(%!)*!+,#-)-%.&%!(%#!#/&-,',#!(%!)0*$+1#2$,'+/)%!!!!!!!!!!!3,4-.*-+%!(5!67!8*.9-%+!67:6'
!
!
K!
!
;.! #O#'14%! 4/(5)*-+%! %#'! &/.#'-'5,! (0/+A*.-#*'-/.#! +%)-,%#! %.'+%! %))%#! 4*-#! <5-! $%59%.'!
&/.'-.5%+! C! D/.&'-/..%+! #-! %))%#! #%! +%'+/59%.'! -#/),%#>! "! )0,&N%))%! (05.! '%++-'/-+%=! )*!
+%)/&*)-#*'-/.! %'! )0*5A4%.'*'-/.! (5! .-9%*5! (0*5'/#5DD-#*.&%! #/.'! (%#! 4/O%.#! $%+4%''*.'!
(0*4,)-/+%+! )*! 4/(5)*+-',>! H05.! *5'+%! &\',=! )0*5'*+&-%! .%! $%+4%''+*-'! $*#!5.%! %DD-&-%.&%!
#5DD-#*.'%!$/5+!<5%!)%!#O#'14%!#/-'!9+*-4%.'!(5+*B)%>!P)!%#'!(/.&!-.(-#$%.#*B)%!(%!$+,#%+9%+!
(%#! ,&N*.A%#! *9%&! #%#! 9/-#-.#=! 4*-#! #-4$)%4%.'! (%! .%! $)5#! (,$%.(+%! -.',A+*)%4%.'! (05.!
#O#'14%! A)/B*)-#,! (/.'! /.! #*-'! *58/5+(0N5-! <50-)! %#'! %F'+I4%4%.'! D+*A-)%! %'! *5! B/+(! (%! )*!
+5$'5+%>!P)!.0%F-#'%!$*#!5.!-(,*)!(%!4/(5)*+-',!<5-!$5-##%!#0*$$)-<5%+!C!'/5'%#!)%#!#-'5*'-/.#>!P)!
#0*A-'!(05.!,<5-)-B+%!C!+%'+/59%+!%.'+%!)%!)/&*)!%'!)%!A)/B*)=!%.!+%A*A.*.'!(%!)@*5'/./4-%>!
P)!O!*!5.%!./'-/.!#/&-*)%!D/+'%!(*.#!&%!&+-'1+%>!P)!&*+*&',+-#%!)*!4*.-1+%!(/.'!)%#!*&'%5+#!(%!)*!
#/&-,',!#/.'!)-,#!%.'+%!%5F!*5!'+*9%+#!(%#!,&N*.A%#!&/44%+&-*5F=!&5)'5+%)#=!,(5&*'-D#e!`/+&%!
%#'! (%! &/.#'*'%+! <5%! )%! )-%.! #/&-*)! (*.#! )%#! #/&-,',#! -.(5#'+-%))%#! #%! (,)-'%! %'! <50-)! %#'!
-4$/+'*.'!(0-.9%+#%+!)*!'%.(*.&%>!
!
Proximité'des'rétroactions'
;.! #O#'14%! &%.'+*)-#,! %#'! #'*B)%! 4*-#! $%5! *(*$'*B)%>! P)! $%5'! #5B-+! (%#! ,91.%4%.'#!
-4$/+'*.'#! 4*-#!$/.&'5%)#=! &/44%! 5.!.5*A%! 9/)&*.-<5%=!5.! $N,./41.%! 4,',/+/)/A-<5%=!
5.%! A+19%! /5! 5.! B)/&*A%! C! (5+,%! )-4-',%=!4*-#! )0-.%+'-%! %#'! '%))%! <5@-)! %#'! -4$/##-B)%! (%!
#0*(*$'%+!+*$-(%4%.'!C!5.!&N*.A%4%.'>!
Q%! 'O$%! (0/+A*.-#*'-/.! %#'! (/.&! +/B5#'%! 4*-#! )%! '%4$#! (%! +,*&'-/.! %#'! *))/.A,! $*+! )%#!
./4B+%5F! .-9%*5F! (%! A/59%+.*.&%=! )*! A)/B*)-#*'-/.! (%#! ,&N*.A%#! %'! )*! )/.A5%5+! (%#!
$+/&,(5+%#! /B)-A*'/-+%#>! "-.#-=! )*! $,+-/(%! %#'! %F'+I4%4%.'! )/.A5%! %.'+%! )%! 4/4%.'! /g! )*!
(,&-#-/.!%#'!$+-#%=!/g!5.!)%9-%+!%#'!*&'-/..,!%'!)%!4/4%.'!/g!)0/.!&/.#'*'%!)%!+,#5)'*'>!3-!)%!
+,#5)'*'!.0%#'!$*#!B/.=!-)!%#'!)/.A!%'!&/4$)%F%!(0*$$/+'%+!(%#!&/++%&'-/.#>!
Z.! /&'/B+%! 67:7=! $*+! %F%4$)%=! )%#! A+19%#! (*.#! )%#! +*DD-.%+-%#! /.'! A,.,+,! 5.%! $,.5+-%!
(0%##%.&%!(*.#!)%#!#'*'-/.#!#%+9-&%#!4*-#!,A*)%4%.'!&N%h!)%#!'+*.#$/+'%5+#!+/5'-%+#>!X+=!)%#!
$)*'%D/+4%#! )/A-#'-<5%#! (%! )*! A+*.(%! (-#'+-B5'-/.! (-#$/#%.'! (0%.9-+/.! (%5F! #%4*-.%#! (%!
#'/&i>!?5%! #%!#%+*-'2-)!$*##,! #-!)*!A+19%!*9*-'!&/.'-.5,! /5! #-!)0*++I'!(%!)0*$$+/9-#-/..%4%.'!
$,'+/)-%+! ,'*-'! %F',+-%5+! C! ./#! D+/.'-1+%#! j! E@Z'*'! *5+*-'2-)! ,',! &*$*B)%! (%! +,/+A*.-#%+!
)0%.#%4B)%!(%!)*!D-)-1+%!*)-4%.'*-+%!%.!<5%)<5%#!8/5+#!j!
"4,)-/+%+!)*!$+/F-4-',!(%#!+,'+/*&'-/.#!&/.#-#'%!(/.&!C!+*&&/5+&-+!)%#!&N*_.%#!(%!(,&-#-/.!%'!
C! *4,)-/+%+! )0/B#%+9*'-/.! (%#! $N,./41.%#>! Q%)*! $%5'! $*##%+! $*+! )*! +%)/&*)-#*'-/.! %'!
)0*4,)-/+*'-/.!(%#!/5'-)#!(%!&/445.-&*'-/.>!M%.(*.'!)*!$,+-/(%!(%!'+*.#-'-/.!$%+4%''*.'!(%!
$*##%+!(05.!#O#'14%!&%.'+*)-#,!C!5.!#O#'14%!+%)/&*)-#,=!-)!&/.9-%.'!(%!&+,%+!(%#!#'/&i#!/5!(%#!
+,#%+9%#!$%+4%''*.'!(0*))/.A%+!)%!(,)*-!(-#$/.-B)%!$/5+!*A-+>!E%#!#'/&i#!/.'!(-#$*+5'!*5!$+/D-'!
1 / 7 100%
La catégorie de ce document est-elle correcte?
Merci pour votre participation!

Faire une suggestion

Avez-vous trouvé des erreurs dans linterface ou les textes ? Ou savez-vous comment améliorer linterface utilisateur de StudyLib ? Nhésitez pas à envoyer vos suggestions. Cest très important pour nous !