Dans quelle mesure le progrès technique est

!"#$% &'())(% *($'+(% )(% ,+-.+/$% 0(12#3&'(% ($043)% )"% $-'+1(%
($$(#03())(%5(%)"%1+-3$$"#1(%61-#-*3&'(%7%
%
%
%
% 8(% ,+-.+/$% 0(12#3&'(% ($0% )9"11+-3$$(*(#0% 5($% 1-##"3$$"#1($% 2'*"3#($:% 5($%
0(12#3&'($%5($%$";-3+$%<"3+(%2'*"3#$=%>')%5-'0(%&'(%)(%,+-.+/$%0(12#3&'(%.+?1(%"'@%
3#;(#03-#$%(0%3##-;"03-#$%"%'#%(<<(0%,-$303<%$'+%)"%1+-3$$"#1(%A%3)%"*6)3-+(%)($%1","1306%
,+-5'103;($:% 3)% "*6)3-+(% )"% ,+-5'103;306:% (0% 5(,'3$% 5('@% 1(#0$% "#$:% 3)% -';+(% 5(%
#-';("'@%$(10('+$%59"103;306%61-#-*3&'($=%8"%1+-3$$"#1(%&'3%($0%$'+%)(%)-#.%0(+*(%
)9"'.*(#0"03-#% 5'+"B)(% 5(% )"% ,+-5'103-#% 5($% +312($$($% ($0% 5(% 0-'0(% <"C-#% '#%
,26#-*/#(%+61(#0:%5-#0%)9",,"+303-#%($0%5(%0-'0(%<"C-#%)36(%D%)"%,+(*3/+(%+6;-)'03-#%
3#5'$0+3())(=%
%E)% $(+"% 5-#1% 53<<313)(% 5(% #3(+% &'(% )(% ,+-.+/$% 0(12#3&'(% ($0% '#(% $-'+1(% 5(%
1+-3$$"#1(=% F'3% *"3$% 1-**(#0%7% G3% )(% ,+-.+/$% 0(12#3&'(% ,+-;-&'(% 5(% ,+-<-#5$%
12"#.(*(#0$% 5"#$% )"% *"#3/+(% 5(% ,+-5'3+(:% (#% "'.*(#0"#0% )9(<<31"1306% 5()D%
,+-5'103-#% #-0"**(#0:% (0% 1+6"#0% 5(% #-';("'@% B($-3#$:% )($% ",,-+0$% 5'% ,+-.+/$%
0(12#3&'($%$-#043)$%$(')(*(#0%)36$%"'@%0+"#$<-+*"03-#$%5($%*-5($%5(%,+-5'103-#=%H#%
"*6)3-+"#0%)($%1-#5303-#$%5(%;3(:%)"%&'")306%5(%;3(:%)(%,+-.+/$%0(12#3&'(%($0%"'$$3%'#(%
$-'+1(% 3#53+(10(% 5(% 1+-3$$"#1(=% F#% ;30% *3('@:% -#% ;30% ,)'$% )-#.0(*,$:% -#% ;30% (#%
*(3))('+(% $"#06:% -#% "% '#(% *(3))('+(% 65'1"03-#=% I'0"#0% 5(% <"10('+$% &'3% +(#5(#0%
)92-**(%,)'$%1+6"03<%(0%,)'$%,+-5'103<=%%
% >-'$% ;(++-#$% 5-#1% 5"#$% '#% ,+(*3(+% 0(*,$% &'(% )(% ,+-.+/$% 0(12#3&'(% ($0%
$-'+1(%5(%1+-3$$"#1(%5"#$%)"%*($'+(%-'%3)%"%'#%(<<(0%,-$303<%53+(10%$'+%)(%$J$0/*(%5(%
,+-5'103-#=%>-'$%;(++-#$%5"#$%'#(%5('@3/*(%,"+03(%&'(%$3%)(%,+-.+/$%0(12#3&'(%"%'#%
"$,(10%,'+(*(#0%61-#-*3&'(:%3)%"%5($%(<<(0$%3#53+(10$%$'+%)"%1+-3$$"#1(%61-#-*3&'(%
(#%"*6)3-+"#0%)"%&'")306%5(%;3(%5($%".(#0$%61-#-*3&'($=%
%

KILMEH% N%A% 8H% KLFOLHG% MHPQ>ERSH% ITH8EFLH% RSI>MEMIMEUHTH>M% HM%
RSI8EMIMEUHTH>M%8H%GVGMHTH%KLF!SPMEW%X%
%
%
IY%8"%1+-3$$"#1(%($0%%X%
INY%89"'.*(#0"03-#%5($%<"10('+$%5(%,+-5'103-#%*"3$%X%
IZY%())(%+(,-$(%6.")(*(#0%$'+%)9"*6)3-+"03-#%5(%)"%1-*B3#"3$-#%5($%<"10('+$%
5(%,+-5'103-#%X%
%
[Y% X% 8"% 1"'$(% 5(% 1(% ,+-.+/$% 0(12#3&'(% ($0% )($% 56,(#$($% (#% +(12(+12(% (0%
56;()-,,(*(#0%X%
%
PY%X%(0%1()"%"%,-'+%1-#$6&'(#1($%)93##-;"03-#%&'3%1+6(%%
%
PNY%X5(%#-';("'@%$(10('+$%61-#-*3&'($%
PZY%X%(0%"*6)3-+(%)"%,+-5'103;306%5($%0+";"3))('+$%X%
P\Y%X%1(%&'3%"%5($%(<<(0$%,-$303<$%$'+%)9-<<+(%(0%)"%5(*"#5(=%
%
%
KILMEH% EE%A% TIEG% IS% !H8]% !H% 8I% GHS8H% GKQ^LH% KLF!SPMEUH:% 8H% KLFOL^G%
MHPQ>ERSH%I%!HG%LHMFT[HHG%KFGEMEUHG%GSL%MFSMHG%8HG%GKQHLHG%!H%8I%UEH%
H>%GFPEHMH%X%
%
IY%X%1-**(%)($%0+"#$<-+*"03-#$%$0+'10'+())($%5(%)"%$-13606%
[Y%X%)96)6;"03-#%5'%#3;("'%5965'1"03-#%
PY%X%1(%&'3%+(#5%'#(%61-#-*3(%0+/$%"00+"103;(%(0%0+/$%1-*,60303;(=%
%

KILMEH% N%A% 8H% KLFOLHG% MHPQ>ERSH% ITH8EFLH% RSI>MEMIMEUHTH>M% HM%
RSI8EMIMEUHTH>M%8H%GVGMHTH%KLF!SPMEW%X%
!"#$% &''"($% )*+',-#).% /&($% 0)11)% +&.1,)% -#)% $,% '&% 0.",$$&(0)% )$1% /#% 2&,1% /)%
'3&#45)(1&1,"(% -#&(1,1&1,6)% /)$% 2&01)#.$% /)% +."/#01,"(% 7.)(/)5)(1% /3809)'')%
0"($1&(1:%03)$1%&#$$,%+&.%#()%&58',".&1,"(%/)%'&%0"5;,(&,$"(%2&01)#.$%1.&6&,'%<%2&01)#.%
0&+,1&'%-#)%')%+."4.=$%1)09(,-#)%&%#(%.>')%7.)(/)5)(1%/3809)'')%0.",$$&(1:?%@'%6&%/"(0%
2&''",.%&;"./).%'&%-#)$1,"(%/)%'&%+."/#01,6,18A%/)%$)$%0&#$)$%)1%/)%$)$%0"($8-#)(0)$?%
%
IY%8"%1+-3$$"#1(%($0%%X%
%
INY%89"'.*(#0"03-#%5($%<"10('+$%5(%,+-5'103-#%*"3$%X_WIEMGY%
%
8(% 5-1'*(#0% \% #-'$% *-#0+(% 5($% 0"'@% 5(% 1+-3$$"#1(% 5'% KE[% ,-'+% `% ,"J$%
56;()-,,6$:% "3#$3% &'(% )($% 1-*,-$"#0($% 5(% 1(% 0"'@% 5(% 1+-3$$"#1(=% F#% 1-#$0"0(%
)9"'.*(#0"03-#% (#% ;-)'*(% 5($% <"10('+$% 5(% ,+-5'103-#% ($0% '#(% 5($% $-'+1($%
($$(#03())($%5(%)"%1+-3$$"#1(=%B(%+)#1%+.)(/.)%'3)*)5+')%/)$%81&1$%#(,$%)1%+&.').%/3#(%
1C+)%/)%0.",$$&(0)%)*1)($,2?%
%
%
IZY%())(%+(,-$(%6.")(*(#0%$'+%)9"*6)3-+"03-#%5(%)"%1-*B3#"3$-#%5($%<"10('+$%
5(%,+-5'103-#%X_WIEMGY%
% T"3$% )(% 5-1'*(#0% \% #-'$% *-#0+(% &'(% )"% KOW% _,+-5'103;306% 5($% <"10('+$% 5(%
,+-5'103-#% 5"#$% )(% 5-1'*(#0Y% ($0% '#(% 1-#0+3B'03-#% 3*,-+0"#0(% 5(% )"% 1+-3$$"#1(%
"3#$3% &'(% )(% <"10('+% +6$35'()=% 89"*6)3-+"03-#% 5'% $J$0/*(% ,+-5'103<% #9($0% ,"$% ,-'+%
+3(#=%%B(%+"#..&%+.)(/.)%')$%)*)5+')$%/)%D3E'')5&4()%"#%/#%F&+"(%)1%+&.').%/)%5"/=')%
/)%0.",$$&(0)%,(1)($,2?%%
%
PP8%A%G)%2&,$%1"#G"#.$%#(%;,'&(%<%1.&($,1,"(%H%'&%2,(%/3#()%$"#$%+&.1,)%+"#.%;,)(%5"(1.).%
0)%-#)%G)%.)1,.)%/)%'3&(&'C$)%+.808/)(1)?%%
F#% ,('0% 5-#1% 1-#$0"0(+% .+?1(% "'% 5-1'*(#0% \% &'3% ,+6$(#0(% )($% 53<<6+(#0($%
1-#0+3B'03-#$%"'%0"'@%5(%1+-3$$"#1(%5'%KE[%&'(%)(%,+-.+/$%0(12#3&'(%(#%0"#0%&'93)%($0%
$-'+1(%5(%."3#%5(%,+-5'103;306%($0%'#(%5($%$-'+1($%($$(#03())($%5(%)"%1+-3$$"#1(=%
%
%
[Y% X% 8"% 1"'$(% 5(% 1(% ,+-.+/$% 0(12#3&'(% ($0% )($% 56,(#$($% (#% +(12(+12(% (0%
56;()-,,(*(#0%X%
!"#$% &''"($% )*+',-#).% +"#.-#",% ')% +."4.=$% 1)09(,-#)% )$1% $"#.0)% /)% 4&,($% /)%
+."/#01,6,18?%
%
% 8(% !-1'*(#0% Z:% #-'$% *-#0+(% )"% ,"+0% 5($% 56,(#$($% (#% +(12(+12($% (0%
56;()-,,(*(#0% ,"+% +",,-+0% "'% KE[=% F#% 1-#$0"0(% &'(% )($% ,"J$% (#% 56;()-,,(*(#0%
1-#$"1+(%'#(%,"+0%3*,-+0"#0(%5(%)('+%+312($$(%D%)"%+(12(+12(%(0%"'%56;()-,,(*(#0:%
*a*(%$3%)9-#%,('0%1-#$0"0(+%&'(%)9SH%#(%,"+;3(#0%,"$%D%56,(#$(+%,)'$%5(%Zb%5(%$-#%
KE[=%8(%561-))".(%61-#-*3&'(%5(%)"%P23#(%5"#$%)($%"##6($%cd%1-++($,-#5%6.")(*(#0%
D%5($%56,(#$($%*')03,)36($%,"+%Z%5(%L>!=%

%_PFSLGY% F#% +",,())(+"% &'(% )"% L>!% 1-#$3$0(% e%D% 56;()-,,(+% 5(% #-';("'@%
,+-5'30$:%D% "*6)3-+(+% )($%,+-5'30$% (@3$0"#0$% -'%)($% ,+-1656$% 5(%<"B+31"03-#%'03)3$6$%
5"#$% )f(#0+(,+3$(=%g% H))(% ($0% '#% *-0('+% ($$(#03()% 5(% )93##-;"03-#:% 5(% ,+-1656:% 5(%
1","1306:% -'% 59-+."#3$"03-#% 5'% 0+";"3)% (0h-'% 5(% )"% ,+-5'103-#=% F#% 1-##"i0% 5($%
(@(*,)($%<"*('@%1-**(%)(%<-+53$*(=%
%_PFSLGY%F#%+",,())(+"%&'(%)"%L>!%$3%())(%($0%5'%<"30%5($%(#0+(,+3$($:%,('0%a0+(%
"'$$3% 5'% <"30% 5(% )9H0"0:% ,"+% )($% 56,(#$($% ,'B)3&'($% 1-#$"1+6($% D% )"% +(12(+12(%
'#3;(+$30"3+(:% -'% ,"+% 5($% 1+6530$% 593*,j0$% "'@% (#0+(,+3$($% &'3% 3##-;(#0:% -'% ,"+% )"%
1-#$030'03-#%5(%,j)(%5(%1-*,60303;306=%
%
PP8%A% #-'$% $";-#$% 59-k% ;3(#0% )93##-;"03-#:% *"3$% &'()$% (#% $-#0% )($% (<<(0$% $'+% )($%
"10('+$%61-#-*3&'($%7%
%
PY%X%(0%1()"%"%,-'+%1-#$6&'(#1($%)93##-;"03-#%&'3%1+6(%%
%
PNY%X5(%#-';("'@%$(10('+$%61-#-*3&'($%
_PFSLGY%8($%3##-;"03-#$%5(%,+-5'30%,(';(#0%.6#6+(+%5(%#-';("'@%$(10('+$%
59"103;306$:%1-**(% )($%MEP% ,"+%(@(*,)(% &'3%$-#0% $-'+1($%5(% #-';("'@%(*,)-3$:% 5(%
#-';("'@% ,+-5'30$:% 1(% &'3% "% '#% (<<(0% <";-+"B)(% $'+% )9-<<+(% (0% )"% 5(*"#5(=% P(+0"3#$%
61-#-*3$0($% 1-**(% G12'*,(0(+% *-#0+(% &'(% )"% 1+-3$$"#1(% ($0% )36(% D% 5(% .+"#5($%
3##-;"03-#$:%&'3% )(% 0(*,$%5(%)('+% 53<<'$3-#% ($0%$-'+1(%59'#(% ,2"$(% 59(@,"#$3-#%5'%
1J1)(%61-#-*3&'(=%
%
PZY%X%(0%"*6)3-+(%)"%,+-5'103;306%5($%0+";"3))('+$X%
% T"3$% (#% 3##-;"#0% 5"#$% )($% ,+-1656% -'% 5"#$% )($% *-5($% 59-+."#3$"03-#% -#%
"*6)3-+(%)"%,+-5'103;306%5($%0+";"3))('+$%1-**(%)(%*-#0+(%)(%5-1'*(#0%N=%E)%$9".30%313%
5(%)"% ,+-5'103;306%2-+"3+(% (0%#-#% 5(%)"% ,+-5'103;306%,"+% 0a0(%&'3% ,(+*(0% 5(% *3('@%
1-*,"+(+%)"%$30'"03-#%5($%,"J$%$"#$%a0+(%.a#6%,"+%)($%53<<6+(#1($%5(%0(*,$%5(%0+";"3)%
)6."'@%53<<6+(#0$%$()-#%)($%,"J$=%P(%5-1'*(#0%60"B)3%'#(%1-++6)"03-#%1)"3+(%(#0+(%)"%
1+-3$$"#1(% 5'% KE[% (0% )"% 1+-3$$"#1(% 5(% )"% ,+-5'103;306% ,"+% 0a0(% _B(% +)#1% +.)(/.)%
'3)*)5+')%/)%'&%I.&(0):?%
%
P\Y%X%1(%&'3%"%5($%(<<(0$%,-$303<$%$'+%)9-<<+(%(0%)"%5(*"#5(=%
% _PFSLGY% F#% $"30% &'(% )"% ,+-5'103;306% "% "'% *-3#$% 5('@% (<<(0$% ,-$303<$=% G'+%
)9F<<+(%())(%53*3#'(%)($%1-'0$%5(%,+-5'103-#:%"'.*(#0(%)($%*"+.($%5(%)9(#0+(,+3$(%(0%
,(+*(0%5-#1%5(%#-';("'@%3#;($03$$(*(#0$=%G'+%)"%!(*"#5(:%())(%53*3#'(%)($%,+3@%1(%
&'3% "11+-30% (0% +(#<-+1(% )"% 5(*"#5(% O)-B")(% &'3% "% '#% (<<(0% 560(+*3#"#0% $'+% )"%
1+-3$$"#1(=%
%
PP8%A% >-'$% ";-#$% 5-#1% ;'% &'(% )(% KM% ";"30% '#% (<<(0% ,-$303<% $'+% )"% 1+-3$$"#1(:% #-'$%
)9";-#$% 59"B-+5% 1-#$0"06% _5-1NY% (0% #-'$% )9";-#$% (@,)3&'6% _5-1% Z% (0% NY=% T"3$% #-'$%
$-**($%+($06$%$'+%)(%$(')%5-*"3#(%5'%,+-1($$'$%,+-5'103<:%-+%)($%(<<(0$%5'%KM%#(%$(%
)3*30(#0%,"$%D%1()"=%
%

KILMEH% EE%A% TIEG% IS% !H8]% !H% 8I% GHS8H% GKQ^LH% KLF!SPMEUH:% 8H% KLFOL^G%
MHPQ>ERSH%I%!HG%LHMFT[HHG%KFGEMEUHG%GSL%MFSMHG%8HG%GKQHLHG%!H%8I%UEH%
H>%GFPEHMH%X%
%
%
IY%X%1-**(%)($%0+"#$<-+*"03-#$%$0+'10'+())($%5(%)"%$-13606%X%
%8(% ,+-.+/$% 0(12#3&'(% "% ,+-<-#56*(#0% 0+"#$<-+*6% )"% $-13606% 1-**(% )(%
*-#0+(%)(%!FP%`=%H#%-<<+"#0%5($%1-#5303-#$%5(%;3(%561(#0(:%(#%-';+"#0%)(%*"+126%5'%
0+";"3)% "'% <(**(% -#% +65'30% )"% 0"3))(% 5(% )"% <"*3))(:% -#% )3B/+(% 5($% 6#(+.3($=% I;(1% )(%
,+-.+/$%*6531"):%)(%,+-.+/$%(#%2J.3/#(%_6.-'0$:%"11/$%D%)9("'%,-0"B)(Y%-#%"*6)3-+(%
)9($,6+"#1(% 5(% ;3(=% F#% ;-30% (#1-+(% 5($% 3#6.")306$% <)".+"#0($% (#0+(% )(% #3;("'% 5(%
+312($$(%_KE[h2"BY% (0% )9($,6+"#1(% 5(% ;3(% D% )"% #"3$$"#1(:% )(% #-*B+(% 59(#<"#0$% ,"+%
<(**(=%_B(%+)#1%0"5+&.).%'&%$,1#&1,"(%/)%'&%J"()%)#."A%/)%'&%K9,()%)1%/#%K"(4"A%"(%
+)#1%$C(1981,$).%0)$%/"((8)$%)(%.)0"#.&(1%H%'3@LM%)1%)*+',-#).%)(%-#",%,'%.&$$)5;')%0)$%
/"((8)$:?%>(%$(+"3041(%&'9(#%"'.*(#0"#0% )9($,6+"#1(% 5(%;3(%(0%)"% $"#06:% )(%KM%+(#5%
,)'$% ,+-5'103<% '#(% ,-,')"03-#% _3)% )"% +(#5% 6.")(*(#0% ,)'$% 2('+('$(Y=% G'+% )(% )-#.%
0(+*(%)(%KM%"%5-#1%'#%"$,(10%0+/$%,-$303<%$'+%)"%1+-3$$"#1(=%
%
[Y%X%)96)6;"03-#%5'%#3;("'%5965'1"03-#%
% 8(%KM%1-#$3$0(%6.")(*(#0%(#%B3(#%3**"06+3():%#-#%,+3;"03<%1-**(%)(%$";-3+=%
896)6;"03-#% 5'% #3;("'% 5965'1"03-#:% -#% )(% $"30% ,+-5'30% '#(% *"3#% 59l';+(% ,)'$%
3##-;"#0(:% ,)'$% ,+-5'103;(=% P9($0% )(% 1",30")% 2'*"3#=% 8($% 026-+3($% 5(% )"% 1+-3$$"#1(%
(#5-./#(% -#0% *3$% )9"11(#0% $'+% 1(0% "$,(10% 3*,-+0"#0% $-'+1(% 593##-;"03-#% (0% 5(%
,+-.+/$%0(12#3&'(=%8(%5-1'*(#0%Z%#-'$%,(+*(0%5(%)(%*-#0+(+=%_"(%+)#1%0"5+&.).%')$%
/8+)($)$%+#;',-#)$%/38/#0&1,"(%)(%+"#.0)(1&4)%/#%N@OA%.&++)').%-#)%')$%/"((8)$%$"(1%
.)'&1,6)$%&#%N@O%)1%)(%0)%$)($%'3)22".1%/)%'&%K9,()%)$1%+'#$%4.&(/%-#)%0)'#,%/#%F&+"(A%5&,$%
-#)%$,%"(%.&5=()%$)$%09,22.)$%)(%/"((8)$%)(%6"'#5)$%')%F&+"(%/8+)($)%+'#$%-#)%'&%K9,()%
)(%5&1,=.)% /38/#0&1,"(% P%QARS% /)%TUVAW% 5,'',"($% 2",$% QQXXR%Y% )$1% $#+8.,)#.%H% RS% /)%
TQQZ% 5,'',"($% 2",$% VWQ[:% 7"#% $,% 0)% (3)$1% +&$% ')% 0&$% "(% +)#1% 2&,.)% ')% 0&'0#'% &6)0% \]% )1%
@(/):?%
%
PY%X%1(%&'3%+(#5%'#(%61-#-*3(%0+/$%"00+"103;(%(0%0+/$%1-*,60303;(=%
% P-#$6&'(#1(%5(%&'-3%1(00(%&'")306%5(%;3(:%1(00(%"*6)3-+"03-#%5($%1-#5303-#$%
5(%;3(%,('0%a0+(%'#%3#531(%5'%B3(#%a0+(%59'#(%,-,')"03-#:%*"3$%3)%,('0%6.")(*(#0%a0+(%
'#%<"10('+%5(%1+-3$$"#1(=%F#%)(%;-30%#-0"**(#0%&'"#5%-#%1-*,"+(%)($%123<<+($%5($%
E!H%(0%5($%3#;($03$$(*(#0$%_(#%b%5'%KE[Y%5-##6$%,"+%)(%5-1'*(#0%`=%G3%)($%5-##6($%
(@,+3*6($%(#%b%(#0+(%)($%K!HT%(0%)($%KHU!%$-#0%1-*,"+"B)($:%)"%1-*,"+"3$-#%#(%
03(#0%,"$%";(1%)($%*a*($%5-##6($%(#%%;-)'*(%7#(%$,5+')%0&'0#'%&6)0%')%N@O<9&;%)1%'&%
+"+#'&1,"(% ("#$% ')% 5"(1.):?% P()"% *-#0+(% &'(% )(% #3;("'% 593#<+"$0+'10'+(:% )(% #3;("'%
5965'1"03-#% NY% ($0% $-'+1(% 5(% KM% (0% 5-#1% 5(% 1+-3$$"#1(% $()-#% )($% 026-+3($% 5(% )"%
1+-3$$"#1(% (#5-./#(=% ZY% &'(% )"% 53<<'$3-#% 5'% KM% ($0% $-'+1(% 593#;($03$$(*(#0:%
59"00+"103;306% 61-#-*3&'(=% 8"% *"3#% 59l';+(% &'")3<36(% (0% (#% B-##(% $"#06% +($0(% '#%
"0-'0%3#56#3"B)(%,-'+%)961-#-*3(%59'#%,"J$%m%
%