SUMMARY
Parasites are ubiquitous and of great importance for the maintenance of a healthy
ecosystem. From a human point of view they are, however, also considered as threats
to our welfare as they can cause livestock, crop, and human diseases. Disease
epidemiology and host-parasite dynamics are tightly linked to parasite transmission
mode and heterogeneity in infection outcomes. Uncovering the factors shaping this
variation and determining how they influence it is necessary for accurate
understanding of disease ecology and evolution.
The decline of several wild and commercially reared pollinator populations
worldwide has attracted a lot of attention, as this may potentially threaten both the
functioning of wild ecosystems and human food provisioning. This thesis
concentrates on the bumblebee Bombus terrestris, a key natural and commercial
pollinator, and its most prevalent parasite, the gut trypanosome Crithidia bombi.
Through four experiments relevant to four different stages of the parasite’s life cycle,
I call to attention the need for an improved understanding of the system’s basic life
history, as well as accurate assessment of the ecological relevance of any particular
factor under investigation.
Parasite transmission mode has important implications for the epidemiology of a
disease. Since the demonstration that C. bombi can be transmitted between bumblebee
colonies through shared use of flowers by foraging workers almost twenty years ago,
no attempt has been made to elucidate the underlying mechanisms. Combining
laboratory and field approaches, I demonstrate in the second chapter that the parasite
is unlikely to be transmitted via flower nectar. I suggest that it may rather be
deposited on flower surfaces and transported between host colonies on worker body
parts.
While laboratory experiments under controlled conditions allow for the clear
elucidation of processes, it is not always clear if laboratory findings can be translated
to the field, nor what their ecological relevance is. While an energetic cost of the
activation of the host immune system on various host traits has been demonstrated in
a controlled laboratory environment, I could not detect any such cost in colonies
placed in the field. In particular, an immune challenge did not alter any of the host
traits under investigation (including parasite infection prevalence), whereas additional
food supply drastically improved host fitness (but not parasite infection prevalence).
Without completely excluding the presence of a condition-dependent cost of
immunity, these results thus question the relative ecological relevance of the
phenomenon. Nevertheless, the idea of context dependence in relation to immunity
and host-parasite interactions is one that is rapidly gaining acceptance. While chapter
3 suggests that the environment can in some cases have an overriding effect, chapter 4
suggests that certain outcomes (here, genotype-by-genotype interactions) may be
robust to relevant environmental variation. In this experiment, I investigated the
influence of the parasite environment experienced at the larval stage on adult
resistance. Being reared in an infected environment did not influence adult resistance
against the parasite, neither in a strain-specific nor strain-unspecific way. However,
the genotype-specific interactions between the host and the parasite were maintained,
suggesting that environmental variation does not necessarily lead to variation in
infection outcome in this host-parasite system. Hence, it is necessary to determine
which environmental variation is important, and how it changes infection outcome, to
better predict disease outcomes in nature.