Lignocellulose Nanofibers for Nitrite, Nitrate, Phosphate Removal in Aquaculture Wastewater

Effectiveness of Lignocellulose Nanobers (LNCFS) for removing nitrite,
nitrate, and phosphate from Gamishan wastewater
Saeedeh Rastgar
a,*
, Wahid Zamani
b
, Monireh Faghani
c
, Zahra Ghiasvand
d
, Hossein Chitsaz
e
,
Seyed Kamaloddin Hosseini
f
a
Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Fisheries and Environmental Sciences, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Gorgan
49189-43464, Iran
b
Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Kurdistan, Sanandaj 15175-66177, Iran
c
Ph.D Graduate in Water Science and Engineering-Irrigation and Drainage, Faculty of Water and Soil Engineering, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and
Natural Resources, Gorgan 49189-43464, Iran
d
Ph.D Student, Department of Animal Sciences and Aquaculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Dalhousie University, Canada
e
Department of Fisheries, Azadshahr Branch, Islamic Azad University, Azadshahr, Iran
f
Department of Mineralogy and Geology, University of Debrecen, 1 Egyetem ter, Debrecen 4032, Hungary
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords:
Lignocellulose nanobers (LNCFs)
Nitrite
Nitrate
Phosphate
Aquaculture wastewater
ABSTRACT
This study investigates the effectiveness of Lignocellulose Nanobers (LNCFs) as a sustainable adsorbent for the
removal of nitrite, nitrate, and phosphate from aquaculture wastewater, specically focusing on sh farms in
Gamishan. We optimized several key parameters, including pH, contact time, temperature, and adsorbent
dosage, to determine the optimal conditions for pollutant removal. The results indicate that the highest removal
efciencies were achieved at a pH level of 6.5, with a contact time of 67 minutes, a temperature of 30
○
C, and an
adsorbent dosage of 400 mg. Specically, the removal rates were found to be 93 % for nitrate, 95 % for nitrite,
and 96 % for phosphate. These ndings demonstrate that LNCFs are not only effective in reducing these pol-
lutants but also possess signicant potential as a sustainable solution for wastewater treatment in aquaculture
systems. The study emphasizes the critical role of optimizing operational parameters to maximize pollutant
adsorption. Furthermore, the successful application of LNCFs in aquaculture practices could enhance environ-
mental sustainability by promoting healthier aquatic ecosystems and effectively addressing the challenges posed
by nutrient loading in water bodies. This research lays the groundwork for future investigations into the broader
applicability of LNCFs in various wastewater treatment contexts, suggesting that their integration into aqua-
culture practices could lead to substantial improvements in water quality management and ecosystem health.
1. Introduction
The treatment of aquaculture wastewater is increasingly critical due
to the signicant environmental threats posed by nutrient-rich dis-
charges. These wastewaters often contain excessive amounts of nutri-
ents, including ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate, which can lead to
eutrophication, severely impacting aquatic ecosystems (Hashmi et al.,
2025). Elevated levels of ammonia are particularly alarming, as they are
highly toxic and can disrupt cellular functions and respiratory processes
in aquatic organisms, leading to high mortality rates (Ricci and Gregory,
2021). Similarly, nitrite can interfere with hemoglobin’s ability to
transport oxygen, resulting in respiratory distress and potential fatalities
among sensitive species. Furthermore, elevated nitrate levels contribute
to water quality degradation by fostering harmful algal blooms, posing
health risks to both aquatic life and humans (Dent et al., 2021). In light
of these urgent issues, the development and implementation of
advanced wastewater treatment technologies are crucial, particularly in
regions like Iran that are grappling with similar challenges. wastewater
treatment approaches typically fall into three main categories: physical,
chemical, and biological processes (Vo¨lker et al., 2019). The choice of an
effective treatment method depends on a variety of factors, including the
specic characteristics of the wastewater, the levels of contamination,
and the desired resource recovery (Talvitie et al., 2017). Often, a hybrid
approach that combines multiple methods is employed to achieve su-
perior treatment outcomes. Central to these processes are diverse ad-
sorbents, which are instrumental in enhancing the efcacy of
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Rastgar).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Aquaculture Reports
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/aqrep
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2025.102777
Received 20 November 2024; Received in revised form 7 March 2025; Accepted 22 March 2025
Aquaculture Reports 42 (2025) 102777
Available online 27 March 2025
2352-5134/© 2025 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ).

wastewater treatment (Mahi et al., 2015). These materials exhibit a high
capacity for removing pollutants, including toxic heavy metals and
organic contaminants. The judicious selection of adsorbents allows for
targeted remediation efforts, optimizing the overall performance of
treatment systems (Sall et al., 2020). Moreover, transforming agricul-
tural by-products into effective adsorbents enhances their functionality
across various sectors and bolsters sustainability efforts (Lai et al.,
2017). Among the potential adsorbents, LNCFs stand out due to their
unique properties and emerging role in wastewater management
(Rastgar et al., 2018a, 2018b). Derived from agricultural residues, such
as wheat straw, LNCFs offer several advantages over conventional ad-
sorbents like activated carbon and zeolite. Their high specic surface
area, coupled with excellent mechanical strength and substantial
absorptive capacity, renders them particularly effective in pollutant
removal (Rastgar et al., 2018a, 2018b). One of the most notable benets
of LNCFs is their environmental impact. As renewable, biomass-derived
materials, they generate signicantly lower carbon emissions compared
to the energy-intensive processes required for producing activated car-
bon (Espinosa et al., 2019). LNCFs are also sourced from abundant
agricultural residues, which greatly reduces material costs and supports
local economies (Wang et al., 2020). Recent research has revealed that
LNCFs are not only effective in adsorbing a broad spectrum of contam-
inants but also demonstrate enhanced durability and performance sta-
bility over time. This study aims to develop and assess LNCFs as a
cost-effective and sustainable solution for treating aquaculture waste-
water. The primary objectives of this research include: (1) evaluating the
pollutant removal capabilities of LNCFs derived from wheat waste,
specically targeting ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate; (2) analyzing the
mechanisms underlying pollutant capture by investigating the physical
and chemical properties that enhance their effectiveness; (3) assessing
the environmental and economic benets of using LNCFs in comparison
with traditional adsorbents; (4) contributing to sustainable aquaculture
practices by examining how LNCFs can improve wastewater manage-
ment; and (5) determining the optimal conditions for LNCFs application,
including parameters like pH, contact time, and pollutant concentration
to maximize efciency. By highlighting the distinctive advantages of
LNCFs compared to other adsorbents, this study seeks to contribute
signicantly to advancements in sustainable wastewater treatment
technologies and promote environmentally responsible practices within
aquaculture systems.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Preparation of wastewater samples
To collect samples from the wastewater of sh farms in Gamishan,
Golestan, Iran, we initiated the process by preparing suitable equipment,
ensuring that we had clean and disinfected glass or plastic bottles
available for sample collection (Rastgar et al., 2024). Prior to collecting
the samples, we conducted a preliminary survey of the areas where
sewage was owing to identify optimal sampling locations (S´ anchez
et al., 2016). We strategically selected multiple sites throughout the sh
farms, with a particular focus on areas near the outlets where waste-
water was discharged and regions where water typically accumulates, as
these are likely to contain higher concentrations of pollutants (Badawi
et al., 2024). At each selected location, we collected approximately
100–500 ml of wastewater. During the collection, it was crucial to
ensure minimal disturbance to the sediment and surrounding environ-
ments to accurately represent the water quality at each sampling site
(Safford et al., 2022). Once we collected the wastewater, we promptly
sealed and labeled each bottle with relevant information, including the
date, time, and specic location of the sampling (Rastgar et al., 2024).
To maintain the integrity of the samples, we took immediate measure-
ments of key parameters such as water temperature and pH at the time of
sampling, as these factors can inuence the chemical composition of the
wastewater (Sadia et al., 2022). After collection, to preserve the quality
of the samples and minimize any biochemical changes, we stored them
in a cooler with ice packs to maintain a low temperature during trans-
portation to the laboratory (Okoffo et al., 2023). This careful manage-
ment of sample integrity was important to ensure accurate analysis of
pollutants. Following arrival at the laboratory, the samples were kept in
a refrigerated environment until further analysis could be conducted,
adhering to protocols that prevent degradation or alteration of the
contaminants present in the wastewater (Schang et al., 2021). This
systematic approach to the preparation and preservation of sewage
samples is vital for obtaining reliable data, ultimately contributing to the
efcacy of our research on the reduction of nitrite, nitrate, and phos-
phate levels in aquaculture wastewater (Winchell et al., 2021).
2.2. Synthesize of LNCFs
The operational methods and processing techniques followed in this
study were systematic and detailed. Initially, selected biomass, ideally
sourced from agricultural residues, was cleaned to remove any debris
and dirt, and then cut into smaller pieces to enhance the surface area for
chemical treatment (Li et al., 2024a, 2024b). The prepared biomass
underwent oxidative treatment with hydrogen peroxide solution in an
appropriate container, with careful monitoring to ensure the effective-
ness of the reaction. The duration of this treatment was optimized for
complete lignin removal, which varied depending on the specic
biomass used (Ahmed et al., 2024). After the oxidative treatment, the
biomass was thoroughly washed with distilled water to eliminate any
residual hydrogen peroxide and leached materials, followed by immer-
sion in 70 % ethanol or isopropyl alcohol for additional purication (Sun
et al., 2024). The puried lignocellulose nanobers were dried in a
controlled environment to prevent moisture interference, and charac-
terization techniques such as atomic force microscopy (AFM) and
Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were employed to
analyze ber morphology and conrm the removal of impurities
(Fukugaichi et al., 2023). The nal product, LNCFs, was stored in sealed
containers under cool and dry conditions until further experiments
could be conducted. This comprehensive approach, involving the stra-
tegic use of chemicals and thorough processing techniques, facilitated
the effective isolation and production of LNCFs suitable for reducing
pollutants in aquaculture wastewater (Kallappa et al., 2023).
2.3. Physical and chemical Parameters
Chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD), nitrite and nitrate (NO
3
-N), PO
4
3-
-P, SO
4
2-
, total suspended solids
(TSS), volatile suspended solids (VSS), total dissolved solids (TDS), total
Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), chloride (Cl
-
), turbidity, and pH were
measured utilizing APHA standard methods (Sharma and Sharma,
2024).
2.4. Characterization of the LNCF
High-resolution transmission electron microscope (HR-TEM, FEI,
TEC9G20, 200 kV, America) and Atomic force microscopy) AFM,
BRUKER, JPK NanoWizard II, Germany) were used
(Mohammadalinejhad et al., 2021).
2.5. Experimental design
Using Design Expert 13.0 (DOE, Stat-Ease Inc., Minneapolis, MN,
USA), CCD-RSM was used to optimize the removal of nitrite, nitrate and
phosphate from aquaculture wastewater. Five independent variables,
pH (A), adsorbent dosage, mg (B), time, min (C), and wastewater tem-
perature,
○
C (D), were selected at three levels +1, 0, and −1 (Table 1).
To enhance the robustness of our optimization strategy, future work will
incorporate replicated experimental runs within the central composite
design (CCD) and response surface methodology (RSM) framework
S. Rastgar et al.
Aquaculture Reports 42 (2025) 102777
2

(Curtis et al., 2022). This will allow for a more comprehensive assess-
ment of experimental error and a more reliable estimation of model
parameters. Furthermore, a more detailed analysis of the interactions
between the independent variables will be conducted, moving beyond
purely theoretical model predictions to account for real-world vari-
ability and complexities (Hamilton et al., 2021). This expanded
approach will ensure that the optimized conditions are both statistically
sound and practically applicable. According to the CCD-RSM, 48
experimental trials were specied, and the following regression equa-
tion (Eq. 2) was used to t the response of independent variables to the
model (Elliott-Sale et al., 2021):
Y=β0+∑
k
i=1
βixi+∑
k
i=1
βiix2
i+∑
k−1
i=1
∑
k
j=2
βijxixj+ ε )2)
where 0, bi, bii, and bij represent, respectively, the intercept, linear,
squared, and interaction coefcients. Y represents the answer. In addi-
tion, x
2
i, x
2
j,…, and x
2
k represent the square effects, whereas xixj, xixk,
and xjxk represent the interaction effects of variables. k represents the
number of considered parameters, while r represents the random error
(Table S1) (Xu et al., 2021a, 2021b). In our study, we have set the pH
range of the wastewater at 6–7, which is notably conducive to the
adsorption processes of LNCFs (Panwar et al., 2021). This pH level aligns
with the optimal conditions for the ionization of functional groups
present on the surface of LNCFs, enhancing their reactivity and
adsorption capacity for various pollutants (Golla et al., 2023). At this
pH, the ionization of carboxyl and hydroxyl groups facilitates stronger
electrostatic interactions with cationic and organic pollutants, thereby
improving removal efciencies (Prabhuraj et al., 2023). Moreover, the
relatively neutral pH minimizes the risk of degradation of the lignocel-
lulosic structure, ensuring the integrity and longevity of the nanobers
during treatment processes (Liu et al., 2021a, 2021b). The high porosity
and surface area of LNCFs contribute to their effectiveness in capturing a
wide range of contaminants, including heavy metals and organic com-
pounds (Fu et al., 2021). The favorable conditions provided by a pH of
6–7 not only enhance the adsorption characteristics of LNCFs but also
promote the exchange of ions, making the removal process more ef-
cient. The characterization methods of replicated experimental runs
within the CCD and RSM were chosen to enhance the robustness of our
optimization strategy for a couple of key reasons (O’Brien et al., 2021).
First, by incorporating replicated runs, we can better assess and quantify
experimental error, which helps improve the reliability of our results.
Second, using CCD and RSM allows for a more thorough analysis of how
the independent variables interact with each other (Liu et al., 2021a,
2021b). This method goes beyond theoretical predictions by taking into
account the real-world variability and complexities of the system,
leading to more accurate and applicable ndings. Overall, these
methods provide a comprehensive approach to optimize our experi-
ments effectively (Xu et al., 2021a, 2021b).
2.6. Isotherm, Kinetics and Thermodynamic modeling
Adsorption Isotherms describe how contaminants interact with ad-
sorbents. The Langmuir isotherm illustrates monolayer adsorption on a
uniform surface, where no interactions occur between adsorbate mole-
cules (Hu et al., 2023). In contrast, the Freundlich isotherm represents
reversible adsorption on a heterogeneous surface, indicating that the
adsorption capacity increases with concentration (Tran et al., 2021).
Adsorption Kinetics provide insight into how quickly and efciently an
adsorbent can remove contaminants (Rajahmundry et al., 2021). The
pseudo-rst-order kinetics model suggests that the rate of adsorption is
proportional to the number of available sites on the adsorbent surface.
The pseudo-second-order kinetics model indicates that the rate of
adsorption depends on the concentration of adsorbate on the surface
(Bullen et al., 2021). Thermodynamics plays a crucial role in under-
standing the energy changes during the adsorption process. The Arrhe-
nius equations used to calculate the activation energy required for
adsorption, which reects the energy barrier for the process (Li et al.,
2021). Additionally, transition state theory (TST) can be used to derive
the Gibbs free energy change associated with the adsorption process,
providing insights into the spontaneity and feasibility of the reaction.
This overview provides a clear understanding of the fundamental
models and equations used to analyze adsorption processes, applicable
in the context of environmental remediation and wastewater treatment
(Rastgar et al., 2021) (Table 2).
2.7. The specic experimental conditions
In this study, the adsorption behavior of LCNFs was evaluated under
a series of specic experimental conditions aimed at optimizing their
effectiveness in removing pollutants from aqueous solutions. The LCNFs
were prepared from lignocellulosic biomass through mechanical and
chemical treatments, including high-pressure homogenization, which
resulted in bers with an average diameter of approximately 65 ±5 nm,
conrmed through HR-TEM. The adsorbates selected for this study
included nitrite and nitrate ions, chosen for their signicant relevance in
wastewater treatment applications. Batch adsorption experiments were
carried out at varying concentrations of these adsorbates, specically
ranging from 50 mg/L to 500 mg/L, while maintaining a controlled
temperature of 25 ◦C to minimize any temperature-related effects on
adsorption kinetics. To establish optimal conditions, the pH levels of the
pollutant solutions were carefully adjusted using hydrochloric acid
(HCl) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to maintain values between pH 6
and 8, as preliminary tests indicated that adsorption efciency was
highest within this range. The adsorption process was allowed to pro-
ceed over controlled contact times, ranging from 15 minutes to
180 minutes, with samples taken at regular intervals to monitor
adsorption progress, ultimately achieving equilibrium within
Table 1
Table of examined Independent variables.
Independent variables Range and level
-1 0 +1
pH (A) 3 6.5 10
Adsorbent dosage, mg (B) 100 250 400
Time, min (C) 15 67.5 120
The temperature,
○
C (D) 15 35 55
Table 2
Characteristics of aquaculture wastewater.
Characteristics Untreated value
(%)
Treated value
(%)
Efciency
(%)
pH
a
7.4 6.7 -
Total COD (TCOD)
b
46125.6 821.2 98.2
Total BOD (TBOD)
b
16543.1 498.4 97.8
Total dissolved solids
(TDS)
b
9761.8 723.1 92.5
Total suspended solids
(TSS)
b
5643.2 422.1 92.51
Volatile suspended solids
(VSS)
b
4965.2 1121.6 77.4
Fixed suspended solids
(FSS)
b
1530.1 254.4 83.3
Total kjeldahl nitrogen
(TKN)
b
3765.3 913.4 75.7
Nitrate (NO
3-
-N)
b
4126.7 1293.6 68.6
Nitrite (NO
2-
-N)
b
2187.5 543.2 75.1
PO
4
3-
-P
b
1.9 0.9 50.8
Cl
-b
14.76 7.2 51
Turbidity
d
61234.9 374.3 99.3
a
=dimensionless
b
=mg/L
d
=NTU at 25◦C
S. Rastgar et al.
Aquaculture Reports 42 (2025) 102777
3

approximately one hour. Kinetic studies were also conducted, employ-
ing both pseudo-rst-order and pseudo-second-order kinetic models to
analyze the time-dependent behavior of LCNFs in adsorbing pollutants.
Initial concentrations tested included 50 mg/L, 100 mg/L, 250 mg/L,
and 500 mg/L. A thorough examination of the temperature’s effect on
adsorption was achieved by conducting experiments at various tem-
peratures (15 ◦C, 25 ◦C, and 35 ◦C) for thermodynamic analysis. This
allowed for the assessment of activation energy and Gibbs free energy,
providing insights into the spontaneity and overall energetics of the
adsorption processes. The collected adsorption data were tted to both
Freundlich and Langmuir isotherm models using regression analysis,
which yielded R² values to evaluate the goodness of t for each model.
These thorough experimental conditions established a robust framework
for understanding the adsorption capabilities of LCNFs, ultimately
demonstrating their potential for effective application in environmental
remediation. Further studies will aim to optimize these conditions and
investigate the adsorption of additional types of pollutants.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. HR-TEM analysis
To investigate the diameter of LCNFs, HR-TEM was employed,
providing valuable insights into their structural characteristics. As
illustrated in Fig. 1, the HR-TEM images clearly depict the morpholog-
ical features of LCNFs, revealing that the diameter of the bers is
consistently below 100 nanometers, placing them rmly within the
nanometer scale. The average diameter of these LNCFs was determined
to be 65 ±10 nm, indicating a relatively uniform size distribution. This
ne scale is crucial as it contributes to the enhanced surface area and
reactivity of LCNFs, making them particularly effective for applications
in bioltration and environmental remediation (Fig. 1) (Fu et al., 2021).
When comparing LCNFs to other nanomaterials like carbon nanotubes
(CNTs) and graphene oxide (GO), several distinctions in structural
properties and applications emerge. For instance, carbon nanotubes are
known for their exceptional mechanical strength and electrical con-
ductivity, typically featuring diameters ranging from 1 to 100
nanometers. Their cylindrical structure allows for efcient electron
transport, making them ideal for applications in electronics and energy
storage (Guo et al., 2022). In contrast, graphene oxide, which consists of
a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a two-dimensional lattice with
oxygen-containing functional groups, has a different approach to surface
area utilization. GO can possess large surface areas (up to 2630 m²/g),
contributing to its excellent adsorption properties. However, while the
dimensions of GO sheets can vary widely, they generally cover larger
areas compared to LCNFs while potentially sacricing some mechanical
strength due to the absence of a brous structure (Zhang et al., 2021a,
2021b). The unique structural attributes of LCNFs, including their spe-
cic average diameter and uniform size distribution, make them
particularly effective in adsorbing pollutants through mechanisms such
as electrostatic interactions and van der Waals forces. Compared to
CNTs, which may show superior electrical conductivity but less surface
area per unit weight, LCNFs present a balanced option for applications in
wastewater treatment, where both high surface area and chemical
reactivity are pivotal (Liang et al., 2023). For example, in wastewater
treatment, while CNTs can effectively capture Nitrate, LCNFs may pro-
vide a more environmentally friendly solution, as they are derived from
renewable biomass. Moreover, LCNFs can be treated with various
functionalization methods to enhance their adsorption capabilities
further, showing versatility that can be competitive against traditional
adsorbents (Liza et al., 2024). In summary, while carbon nanotubes and
graphene oxide offer unique advantages in specic applications, the
properties of LCNFs, particularly their size, surface area, and sustain-
ability, position them as a promising alternative for environmental
remediation and bioltration applications. The next stages of research
will focus on enhancing these attributes, exploring their behavior in
larger, more operationally relevant contexts (Hu et al., 2021).
3.2. Summarize the adsorption behavior process with HR-TEM
The high adsorption capacity of LNCFs for pollutants can be attrib-
uted to several key chemical properties and structural characteristics.
Firstly, LNCFs have a large surface area due to their nanoscale di-
mensions. This increased surface area allows more active sites for
Fig. 1. TEM images at various magnications, (a=180 nm, b and c=195 nm, d=450 nm, respectively).
S. Rastgar et al.
Aquaculture Reports 42 (2025) 102777
4

interaction with adsorbates, leading to greater adsorption efciency (Hu
et al., 2024). The nanoscale structure also results in a higher porosity,
which enables better access for contaminants to penetrate the ber
matrix and enhances contact between the adsorbent and the pollutants.
Chemically, LNCFs are composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin,
each of which contributes specic functional groups that facilitate
adsorption (Lothenbach et al., 2024). Cellulose contains hydroxyl (–OH)
groups that can form hydrogen bonds with various polar and charged
species, enhancing the electrostatic attractions between the nanobers
and pollutants. Furthermore, the presence of hemicellulose, which has a
branched structure, can also provide additional functional groups for
interaction with contaminants ( Guo and Jiang, 2022). Lignin, a complex
phenolic compound, has a unique ability to bind to a range of organic
pollutants due to its aromatic structure, which can engage in
π - π stacking
interactions with aromatic contaminants such as dyes and heavy metals
(Morita et al., 2023). The phenolic groups present in lignin can also
participate in chemical bonding with various functional groups found in
pollutants, increasing the adsorption efcacy further. The pH of the
solution plays a signicant role in the adsorption process (Chen et al.,
2023a, 2023b). At neutral pH, the ionization of functional groups on the
adsorbent and the pollutants can affect their charges, promoting elec-
trostatic interactions. For example, many heavy metals exist as cations
in neutral to acidic conditions, which can interact effectively with the
negatively charged sites of LNCFs, thus enhancing removal efciency
(Kim et al., 2021).
3.3. AFM analysis
LNCFs represent a remarkable advancement in the utilization of
plant bers due to their high surface area, impressive mechanical
strength, and versatility, making them suitable for a wide range of ap-
plications. As illustrated in Fig. 2, the production of LNCFs involves
mechanical processes that break down cellulose bers into nanoscale
brils, resulting in a material with unique attributes benecial for
various industrial applications (Abdullahi et al., 2025). One standout
feature of LNCFs is their exceptional mechanical properties. Studies
indicate that LNCFs possess tensile strengths comparable to that of CNTs
and GO, yet they are derived from renewable resources (Payungwong
et al., 2025). When integrated into composite materials, LNCFs can
signicantly enhance the strength and durability of these composites,
making them particularly valuable in industries such as automotive and
construction, where the demand for strong, lightweight materials is
rapidly increasing (Yao et al., 2025). The reinforcing capacity of LNCFs
is primarily due to their brous structure, which facilitates strong
inter-bril bonding that is critical for load-bearing applications. In
addition to their mechanical benets, LNCFs are also valued for their
biocompatibility and biodegradability, aligning with the growing de-
mand for sustainable materials (Park et al., 2025). These characteristics
render LNCFs a promising alternative in creating eco-friendly packaging
solutions that not only meet performance criteria but also minimize
environmental impact. Recent advancements have demonstrated that
LNCFs can be effectively used in biodegradable packaging materials,
which address the global plastic waste crisis by reducing reliance on
conventional plastic products (Jia et al., 2025). The surface morphology
of LNCFs, as revealed AFM, showcases a complex network of brils that
enhance their surface area and potential interactions with a variety of
substances. This increased surface area boosts their efcacy in applica-
tions such as coatings and lms, where superior adhesion and durability
are paramount. Furthermore, the nanoscale dimensions allow for the
development of transparent lms, expanding their applications in ex-
ible electronics and optoelectronics (Chen et al., 2023a, 2023b). More-
over, recent research has highlighted the potential of LNCFs in creating
advanced materials such as aerogels, which are known for their light-
weight and excellent thermal insulation properties. These aerogels could
revolutionize applications in insulation, construction, and aerospace
engineering, underscoring the versatility of LNCFs (Collins and Tajvidi,
2022). A comparative analysis of LNCFs with CNTs and GO, particularly
via AFM techniques, reveals distinct morphological and structural
characteristics that inuence their applicability. LNCFs typically exhibit
a web-like structure with diameters ranging from 10 to 100 nanometers,
contributing to their high surface area and effective mechanical prop-
erties (Collinson et al., 2021). This brous structure facilitates stronger
inter-bril bonding, enhancing their reinforcement capabilities. In
contrast, CNTs possess a cylindrical morphology with diameters typi-
cally around 1–100 nanometers. They exhibit exceptional tensile
strength and electrical conductivity, making them ideal for applications
requiring high performance (Viljoen et al., 2021). However, the ultra-
high aspect ratio of CNTs can result in aggregation in heterogeneous
mixtures, which may restrict their effectiveness in composite materials.
Graphene oxide has a two-dimensional sheet-like structure, character-
ized by lateral dimensions in the micrometer range with a thickness of
only a few nanometers. AFM studies show that the presence of oxygen
functional groups on GO enhances its dispersion and interfacial adhe-
sion in composites (Bellotti et al., 2022). GO’s surface area, exceeding
2630 m²/g, outmatches that of LNCF, granting it superior barrier
properties. However, its mechanical strength tends to be lower than that
of CNTs, which might limit its use in applications where structural
integrity is essential. From an environmental perspective, LNCFs
biocompatibility and biodegradability are signicant advantages over
CNTs and GO, which raise concerns regarding toxicity and potential
environmental risks (Kumar and Masram, 2021). CNTs and GO may
contribute to environmental pollution if not recycled or managed
properly, whereas LNCFs, with their natural origin and sustainable
processing methods, represent an eco-friendlier option suitable for
biomedicine, eco-friendly packaging, and more sustainable product
development (Ghorui et al., 2024). LNFCs, CNTs, and GO possess
distinct structural characteristics that signicantly impact their appli-
cations. LNFCs is derived from plant bers, featuring a web-like network
of brils with diameters ranging from 10 to 100 nanometers. This
unique structure grants LNFCs excellent mechanical strength and a high
surface area, facilitating effective inter-bril bonding
(Motamedi-Tehrani et al., 2025). Consequently, LNFCs is widely used as
a reinforcing agent in composite materials, particularly in industries
such as automotive and construction, where lightweight and durable
materials are essential. Additionally, LNFCs biodegradability and
biocompatibility make it a suitable candidate for sustainable packaging
and medical applications, including wound dressings and drug delivery
systems (Duan et al., 2024). Its potential for creating aerogels—light-
weight, porous materials with outstanding thermal insulation—is also
being explored, which can be applied in building insulation and aero-
space engineering. Furthermore, LNFCs high surface area allows it to be
utilized in coatings and lms, improving adhesion and durability,
making it a compelling option for exible electronics and transparent
lms (Jakˇ si´ c et al., 2024). On the other hand, CNTs are characterized by
their cylindrical morphology with diameters ranging from 1–100
nanometers. This structure endows CNTs with exceptional tensile
Fig. 2. AFM analysis of LNCFs.
S. Rastgar et al.
Aquaculture Reports 42 (2025) 102777
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