D12279.PDF

Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 2012, 31 (3), 919-930
Classical swine fever in the pygmy hog
N.N. Barman (1)*, D.P. Bora (1), A.K. Tiwari (2), R.S. Kataria (3),
G.S. Desai (2) & P.J. Deka (4)
(1) Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara
Campus, Guwahati-781 022, India
(2) Division of Animal Biotechnology, IVRI, Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
(3) National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources, Karnal, Haryana, India
(4) Pygmy Hog Conservation Programme, Basistha, Guwahati, Assam, India
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Summary
The pygmy hog is a rare, small and highly endangered mammal belonging to the
Suidae family, and it is presently found only in the Assam state of India. While
investigating the cause of death of pygmy hogs housed at a conservation centre
for captive breeding and research at Basistha, Assam, it was confirmed that they
were susceptible to and died as a result of contracting classical swine fever
(CSF), caused by CSF virus (CSFV), which is a highly infectious endemic disease
of domestic pigs in India. The post-mortem findings and serum CSFV-specific
antibody titres, along with the isolation of CSFV from two pygmy hogs, and further
confirmation by CSFV genomic E2 and 5’ untranslated region (UTR) gene
amplification in PCR (polymerase chain reaction), clearly established the cause
of death of the pygmy hogs. Further, on phylogenetic analysis, the pygmy hog
CSFV 5’ UTR sequences were grouped in the genotype 1.1 cluster of Indian
CSFVs, and hence the strains causing infection were closely related to CSFV
isolates circulating in domestic pigs. Therefore, the occurrence of CSF in this
endangered species may pose a potent threat to their existence unless properly
controlled, and thus it needs urgent attention. To the authors’ knowledge this is
the first report on CSF in pygmy hogs.
Keywords
Classical swine fever – Conservation – Diagnosis – Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
(ELISA) – Fluorescent antibody technique (FAT) – Pygmy hog – Porcula salvania – Reverse
transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR).
Introduction
Of the many animal viral diseases that are notifiable to the
World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), classical
swine fever (CSF) is one of the most important global
diseases of Suidae, and it is caused by the CSF virus
(CSFV), which belongs to the Pestivirus genus within the
virus family Flaviviridae. The disease occurs in most parts
of the world except North America and Australia. The
CSFV is a small, enveloped particle containing a singlestranded RNA genome of 12.5 kb. The single open reading
frame (ORF) of the CSFV genome encodes 11 or 12 final
cleavage products, and is flanked by highly conserved
5′ and 3′ untranslated regions (UTRs). The structural
components of CSFV are formed by C, Erns, E1 and E2
proteins (34). Although CSF has been eradicated in
domestic pigs in some parts of the world, a reservoir is
maintained in wild boar populations and the virus can be
reintroduced into domestic pigs, resulting in fresh
outbreaks and spread of the disease (2, 17). Since about
77% of infectious diseases of domestic animals are
common to wildlife (15), a highly contagious disease such
as CSF can cross over rapidly from domestic animals to
captive or free-ranging wild animals in neighbouring
habitats through contact with infected domestic pigs,
contaminated feed or water, or through fomites and
humans, and these diseases pose a great threat to the
existence of the rarest wild fauna.
The pygmy hog (Sus salvanius), recently reclassified as
Porcula salvania (9), is the rarest wild suid in the world and
is regarded as the closest relative of the Eurasian pig
Sus scrofa (11, 19). Today, it is on the brink of extinction,
as the only viable wild population of this species exists in
the Manas National Park, near to the capital city of
Guwahati, in the Assam state of India (18). The
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
has accorded the highest priority rating status to the pygmy
hog and included it in the list of critically endangered
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species (category 6). Therefore, to conserve this most
endangered species, a pygmy hog research and breeding
centre has been set up at Basistha, Guwahati, Assam, India.
In the captive breeding stock, stringent hygiene measures,
including isolation from direct contact with other animals,
have been adopted (20). Despite this, the pygmy hogs have
been infected with various infectious diseases, including
bacterial, fungal and parasitic, as well as viral infections
(3, 18); many of the diseases that affect the pygmy hogs
have yet to be characterised. An outbreak of salmonella
was recorded in the pygmy hog by Rahman et al. (24).
Prior to the outbreak of CSF, association of a disease with a
causative viral agent was not thoroughly investigated.
However, during the years 2003 to 2005, there was some
mortality in the animals and, in an attempt to diagnose the
cause of death, tissue samples from dead and ailing animals
were screened for CSF. The study indicated that the pygmy
hogs had sub-acute or acute CSF, and some animals
succumbed to the virulent disease. To the authors’
knowledge, this paper is the first to clearly establish that
CSF poses an infectious disease threat to the continuing
existence of the pygmy hog.
of lesions were recorded. A total of 58 clinical samples,
from the tonsils, mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs), kidney,
spleen and liver, were collected aseptically for further
investigation.
Materials and methods
Sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
History and source of materials
Two male and four female wild hogs were captured from
the Manas National Park, Assam, India, in March 1996,
and were housed in the breeding centre at Basistha,
Guwahati, Assam (20), for captive breeding following
routine husbandry practices. The animals in the centre are
provided with hygienically prepared feed twice daily, and
clean drinking water ad libitum. A stringent sanitation and
hygiene procedure is adopted. Footbaths are provided at
all entry points and the area is totally out of bounds to any
stranger. The location of the breeding centre is on the slope
of a hilly area; bushy plants and reeds have been grown to
create a natural atmosphere. In captivity, the six foundation
animals have bred, and the total population of pygmy hogs
has risen considerably.
Between 2001 and 2005, the hogs of different age
groups were infected without showing any visible
clinical signs of disease. In some cases, discovery of
infected animals was made difficult because they
prefer to hide inside bushy plants. A total of 45 infected
animals were attended, of which 24 animals were found
dead. The remaining animals (mostly adults) were
separated, and given treatment with antibiotics and
supplements.
In each case where an animal died, a post-mortem
examination was performed 2 h to 6 h after death.
External body surfaces and internal organs were
examined thoroughly, and sizes and numbers
Detection of viral antigen/antibodies
The tissue samples collected at post-mortem between
2003 and 2005 were processed using standard procedures
described elsewhere (38) for preliminary detection
of CSFV antigen. Subsequently, suspected cases of
CSF were investigated regularly for demonstration of CSF
viral antigen. Two tests, namely, a polyclonal-antibody-based
sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and
direct fluorescent antibody technique (FAT), were used
following the methods of Sarma and Sarma (29) and the OIE
Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals
(38) for detection of viral antigen. For demonstration of
CSFV antibody in recovered as well as in-contact hogs,
paired sera samples were collected. Again, in 2009, a batch
of post-weaned hogs was screened for the presence of CSFV
antibody.
The test was carried out in 96-well microtitre plates
(Maxisorp, Nunc, Denmark). The wells were coated with
50 µl of rabbit anti-CSFV antibodies (1:3000) in
0.05 M carbonate-bicarbonate buffer. The wells were
coated overnight and then washed three or four times with
wash buffer (0.5 M PBS + 0.05% Tween 20, PBS-T). Wells
were preblocked with 50 µl blocking buffer (PBS-T + 5%
lactalbumin hydrolysate [LAH] + 10% horse serum) and
incubated at 37°C for 1 h. Washing was repeated as
described above. Serial dilutions of test samples were made
in PBS-T, with an initial dilution of 1:2, and then
incubated. After thorough washing, 50 µl of pig anti-CSFV
antibodies (1:800 in blocking buffer) was added to each
well and incubated. After thorough washing, anti-pig
horseradish peroxidase conjugate (Dako, Glostrup,
Denmark; diluted 1:1000 in blocking buffer), substrate
(OPD; Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, MO, USA) and H2O2 were
added, and allowed to react. The reaction was stopped
with 1 M H2SO4. The optical density (OD) was read at a
wavelength of 490 nm in an ELISA reader (Bio-Rad,
Hercules, CA, USA). An appropriate positive antigen
control (lapinised CSF vaccine virus) and a negative
antigen control (spleen suspension of caesarean-derived
day-old piglet and screened as negative for Pestivirus in RTPCR [reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction])
were used in the test. The cut-off OD value for each sample
was calculated by subtracting the mean OD value of the
negative control from the mean OD value of the test
sample. A difference of ≥ 0.1 in the OD value of highest
dilution between the negative control and the test sample
was considered to be a positive result.
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Direct fluorescent antibody technique
Tissue sections (approximately 5 µm to 6 µm thick) were
prepared using a cryotome (Thermo Shandon, Runcorn,
UK) and the slides were fixed in chilled acetone (−20°C)
for 10 min. Cryosections were thawed, briefly washed in
washing buffer, and a circle was drawn around sections
using a PAP Pen (Dako). A 50 µl volume of pig anti-CSFV
fluorescein isothiocynate (FITC) conjugate (Community
Reference Laboratory, Hanover, Germany; 1:10 dilution)
was put onto each section, and the sections were incubated
at 37°C for 30 min in a humid chamber. After thorough
washing, mounting buffer was applied to each slide, and
the sections were covered with coverslips. Each test section
was compared with a negative section to assess the
background stain. The slides were examined under a
fluorescence microscope (Karl Zeiss, Germany). Cells
exhibiting bright green fluorescence were identified as
virus-infected cells.
and their antibodies) was discarded and the cell monolayer
was prepared for inoculation with field samples. A 20%
tissue suspension was treated with glutamine/antibiotic
stock solution: 1 ml per 10 ml tissue suspension. The cell
monolayer was inoculated with 0.5 ml of antibiotic-treated
sample spread evenly over the entire monolayer of cells by
tilting the flask. The inoculated flasks were incubated at
37°C for 30 min for adsorption of viruses to cells. After
removal of unadsorbed viruses by washing, maintenance
medium (EMEM with 10% fetal calf serum) was added to
the flask and incubated at 37°C for 24 h to 36 h. The
inoculated flasks were harvested 4 to 5 days later, and
stored at −20°C. Each clinical sample was given a
minimum of 10 passages in the cell culture. Propagated
CSFV in cell culture was confirmed by direct
FAT, sandwich ELISA and RT-PCR.
Detection of viral nucleic acid
Indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
The development and titre of antibodies in serum samples
from the pygmy hogs that had recovered from infection, as
well as those in contact with the disease, were determined
by the indirect ELISA, following the method of Sarma and
Sarma (29), with a slight modification. The test was carried
out in a 96-well flat-bottomed polyvinyl plate (PolySorp;
Nunc, Rochester, NY, USA). The wells were coated with
purified vaccine antigen (1:500). Two-fold serial dilutions
of the test serum were made, with an initial dilution of
1:10 in blocking buffer containing 5% LAH in 0.5 M
PBS-T. A 50 µl volume of rabbit anti-swine horseradish
peroxidase conjugate (1:1000; Dako) was added into each
well, and the plates were incubated. After a thorough
washing, 50 µl of freshly prepared substrate (H2O2) and
chromogen (orthophenyldiamine; Sigma-Aldrich) mixture
was added to the wells and allowed to react for 15 min.
The reaction was stopped by adding 50 µl of 1 M H2SO4 to
each well. Positive hyperimmune serum and negative
serum samples were run as controls in each plate. The
highest dilution of the test well showing a corrected OD
value (OD of test well minus mean OD of negative control)
of ≥0.1 was considered to be the titre of the serum sample.
Isolation of classical swine fever virus
Samples found to be positive for CSFV in ELISA and FAT
were processed for isolation of CSFV in cell culture. The
virus was isolated in the established PK15 cell line. A tissue
culture flask containing a confluent monolayer of PK15
cells in the seventh passage was obtained from the National
Centre for Cell Science, Pune, India. The cells were
maintained in the laboratory by continuous subculturing
following standard procedure (38). The growth medium
(Eagle’s minimal essential medium [EMEM] with 10%
gamma-irradiated fetal calf serum, free from pestiviruses
Reverse transcriptase nested polymerase chain reaction
(RT-nPCR) was used for detection of CSFV nucleic acid in
various tissue samples, such as tonsil, lymph node, kidney
and liver, collected from infected pygmy hogs. Viral RNA
was extracted from the tissue suspensions, cDNA was
synthesised by reverse transcription, and then specific
amplification of CSFV was done by RT-nPCR targeting the
E2 and 5′ UTR regions of the CSFV genome.
Extraction of viral nucleic acid
Viral RNA was extracted from tissue samples and standard
lapinised virus using RNA-TRI reagent (Ambion, Austin,
TX, USA), following the manufacturer’s instructions.
Briefly, 20% tissue suspension was prepared manually by
homogenising tissue in an appropriate volume of PBS. A
200 µl volume of tissue homogenate suspension was
transferred to a 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tube, and 1 ml of
RNA-TRI reagent was added, followed by vigorous mixing
by shaking and pipetting the mixture. Finally, the mixture
was incubated at room temperature for 10 min for
complete dissociation of the nucleoprotein. Then 200 µl of
chloroform was added to the mixture and it was briefly
mixed for 15 s before incubation at room temperature for
10 min. The mixture was then centrifuged at 12,000 × g at
4°C for 10 min, and the colourless supernatant was
transferred to a fresh microcentrifuge tube. A 500 µl
volume of isopropanol was added to the supernatant and it
was incubated at room temperature for 10 min. To pellet
the viral RNA, the sample was centrifuged at 12,000 × g for
10 min. The RNA pellet was washed once with 1 ml of
75% ethanol and then centrifuged again at 7,500 × g at
4°C for 5 min. The supernatant was removed, and the RNA
pellet was air dried at room temperature and resuspended
in 20 µl of nuclease-free water. Extracted RNA samples
were labelled correctly and stored at −20°C until
further use.
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Primers
Four different sets of primers (Table I) were used in the
study. The primers were designed by Lowings et al. (16)
and Greiser-Wilke et al. (10) targeting CSFV-specific
E2 and pan-pesti-specific 5′ UTR genes, based on the
previously published sequence of CSFV Alfort-187 strain.
Out of these four sets of primers, two sets (CSF 1.3 and
CSF 1.4 for E2, and CSF 2.3 and CSF 2.4 for the 5′ UTR
region) were used for nested PCR.
Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction
Complementary DNAs (cDNAs) of viral RNA were
synthesised using 6 µl of viral RNA and 1 µl of random
primer (50 ng/µl) in a total reaction volume of 13 µl. The
contents were incubated in a thermal cycler (PerkinElmer,
Waltham, MA, USA) at 70°C for 5 min and 25°C for
10 min. The reverse transcription was carried out by
adding annealed RNAs to the reverse transcription mixture
consisting of 4 µl of 5× RT buffer, 1 µl RNAase inhibitor
(40 U/µl), 1 µl of 10 mM deoxynucleotide triphosphate
(dNTP) mixture, and 1 µl of Moloney murine leukaemia
virus reverse transcriptase (200 U/µl). The PCR protocol
consisted of primer annealing at 25°C (10 min), extension
at 42°C (1 h), and inactivation of the enzyme at 70°C
(10 min). The cDNAs were stored at −20°C until required
for further use.
PCR was carried out for amplification of both E2 and
5′ UTR regions of CSFV following the method described
previously (10, 16). The PCR mixture in a total volume of
50 µl, containing 5.0 µl of 10× buffer, 3.0 µl of 25 mM
MgCl2, 1.0 µl of primers, 1.0 µl of 10 mM dNTPs, 5.0 µl
of cDNA, 0.5 µl of Taq DNA polymerase (Qiagen) and
33.5 µl of nuclease-free water, was subjected to
amplification in a thermal cycler at 95°C for 2 min (one
cycle), 95°C for 30 s, 56°C for 45 s, 72°C for 1 min
(34 cycles), and 72°C for 1 min. For amplification of the
5′ UTR, the annealing temperature was kept at 50°C.
Nested polymerase chain reaction
of the E2 and 5′ untranslated regions
For nested PCR of the E2 region gene and the 5′ UTR gene,
the procedure was essentially the same as described above,
except that the template cDNA was replaced by 5 µl of
primary PCR amplicons and the annealing temperature was
kept at 58°C for the E2 gene and 56°C for the 5′ UTR gene.
The primers used were internal primers CSF 1.3 and CSF
1.4 for the E2 region gene, and CSF 2.3 and CSF
2.4 for the 5′ UTR gene. After amplification, a 5 µl aliquot
was electrophoresed through a 1.7% agarose gel and stained
with ethidium bromide for visualisation of the expected
amplicon. Lapinised CSFV vaccine virus was used as a
positive control, and spleen tissue of a piglet delivered by
caesarean section was used as a negative control.
Cloning and sequencing
of polymerase chain reaction products,
and analysis of sequence data
The amplicons of the 5′ UTR gene generated by nested PCR
were subjected to purification using QIAquick PCR
purification kit (Qiagen, New Delhi, India) and cloned into
a pGEM-T Easy vector (M/s Promega Corp., Madison, WI,
USA) for sequencing in an automated sequencer (ABI
Prism 3100; ABI, IL, USA). Sequences were analysed by
comparison with sequences of different pestiviruses
available in the GenBank database using the online BLAST
server (1). Multiple sequence alignment was carried out by
using the ClustalW algorithm (35) and manual editing.
Phylogenetic analysis was conducted using MEGA version
4.0.2 (32). For comparison, sequences of various reported
CSFV field isolates, and vaccine strains from India and
Table I
Description of primers used in the present study
Primer designation/
orientation
Genomic region
Primer sequence
Nucleotide position
Reference
CSF1.1 (forward)
E2
5′-AGRCCAGACTGGTGGCCNTAYGA-3′
2228–2250
Lowings et al., 1996 (16)
CSF1.2 (reverse)
E2
5′-TTYACCACTTCTGTTCTCA-3′
2898–2880
Lowings et al., 1996 (16)
CSF1.3 (forward)
Internal (CSFV specific)
E2
5′-TCRWCAACCAAYGAGATAGGG-3′
2477–2497
Lowings et al., 1996 (16)
CSF1.4 (reverse)
Internal (CSFV specific)
E2
5′-CACAGYCCRAAYCCRAAGTCATC-3′
2748–2726
Lowings et al., 1996 (16)
CSF2.1 (forward)
5’ UTR
5′-CTAGCCATGCCCWYAGTAGG-3′
94–113
Greiser-Wilke et al., 1998 (10)
CSF2.2 (reverse)
5’ UTR
5′-CAGCTTCARYGTTGATTGT-3′
514–496
Greiser-Wilke et al., 1998 (10)
CSF2.3 (forward)
Internal (pan-pesti-specific)
5’ UTR
5′-AGCTCCCTGGGTGGTCTA-3′
146–163
Greiser-Wilke et al., 1998 (10)
CSF2.4 (reverse)
Internal (pan-pesti-specific)
5’ UTR
5′-TGTTTGCTTGTGTTGTATA-3′
417–399
Greiser-Wilke et al., 1998 (10)
CSF: classical swine fever
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other parts of world, were downloaded from the GenBank
database.
Results
Pathology of classical swine
fever virus infection in the pygmy hog
During the period of 2003 to 2005, out of a total of
45 cases attended, 24 pygmy hogs with suspected CSF
were subjected to post-mortem examination; the
remaining 21 animals were clinically affected, but
recovered, and were investigated for demonstration of
CSFV-specific antibody. The majority of affected animals
who died were found dead in the morning. Only a limited
number of hogs (8 of 45) showed prominent clinical signs
of infection, and this was for a period of 2 to 3 days. The
signs were characterised by a high rise in temperature
(105°C), anorexia, conjunctivitis, hyperaemia (five
animals), occasional vomiting (three animals) and
constipation. Some affected animals exhibited respiratory
(four animals) and nervous distress (two animals). Some of
the piglets developed hindlimb paralysis (two animals).
Affected animals did not appear to huddle together, but
they burrowed under leaves. Others died without showing
any clinical symptoms.
Post-mortem examination of dead pygmy hogs revealed
various gross changes in the lymphoid organs, kidney,
heart, epiglottis, gallbladder, urinary bladder, brain and
intestine. Animals below 2 months of age showed
haemorrhage and congestion in the heart, kidney and
spleen. Tonsils and MLNs were swollen and congested.
Prominent pathological changes in grower piglets were
congestion and haemorrhage in tonsils, MLNs, spleen and
brain. The kidney showed pinpoint haemorrhages in the
subcapsular surface (Fig. 1). Haemorrhagic changes were
also observed in the myocardium. The intestine was highly
congested and showed focal necrosis in the colon.
Detection of classical swine
fever virus antigen and antibody
A total of 58 tissue samples were processed for
demonstration of CSFV antigen by direct FAT and by
sandwich ELISA; the results are presented in Table II. Direct
FAT detected CSFV antigen in 12 out of 58 tissue samples
(20.7%), while sandwich ELISA showed that 15 of 58 were
positive (25.9%). The tissue samples with the highest
proportion of positive results were the lymph nodes (8/9;
88%) and the tonsils (4/8; 50%), followed by the spleen
samples (9/21; 42%) and kidney samples (6/14; 42%).
Samples received between 2005 and 2009 were screened
regularly for demonstration of CSFV antigen and antibody.
An indirect ELISA was used to screen animals that had been
Fig. 1
Subcapsular region of classical swine fever virus infected
kidney of the pygmy hog shows pin-point haemorrhages
in contact with the disease, as well as those that had
recovered, for the presence of CSFV-specific antibody. A
total of 21 animals belonging to different age groups were
screened and 33.3% (7/21) of these were found to possess
CSFV antibody. Animals at 1 month of age were highly
seropositive (5/6; 83.3%), with a maximum seroconversion
titre of 1:128. Four years after the last recorded outbreak of
CSFV (2005), post-weaned young pygmy hogs
(13 animals) showed no CSFV-specific antibody in their
sera samples. Tissue samples (20 samples) examined,
irrespective of the presence of typical lesions, did not
indicate the presence of CSFV antigen.
Polymerase chain reaction
Nested PCR amplification of both E2 and 5′ UTR regions,
using CSFV-specific primers (Table I), showed the
expected product of 271 bp (Figs 2a and 2b) in both of the
genes. Out of 58 tissue samples collected, 18 (31.03%)
samples showed the presence of CSFV antigen. The
remaining samples were found to be negative for CSFV.
Table II
Detection of classical swine fever virus antigen in the tissue
samples by fluorescent antibody test and sandwich enzymelinked immunosorbent assay
Source of sample
No. of samples tested
Tonsils
Mesenteric lymph nodes
Spleen
Kidney
Liver
Total
8
9
21
14
6
58
ELISA: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
FAT: fluorescent antibody test
No. of samples positive (%)
FAT
ELISA
2 (25.0)
2 (25.0)
4 (44.4)
4 (44.4)
3 (14.3)
6 (28.6)
3 (21.4)
3 (21.4)
0 (00.0)
0 (00.0)
12 (20.7)
15 (25.9)
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M: 100 bp DNA ladder
L1: negative control
L2: positive control (lapinised classical swine fever vaccine virus)
L3: classical swine fever pygmy hog isolate PH 13
L4 and L5: negative controls
Fig. 2a
Electrophoresis of the nested polymerase chain reaction
product of the E2 region of classical swine fever virus
Isolation of classical swine fever virus
A total of six clinical and post-mortem samples found to be
positive in FAT, S-ELISA and PCR were processed for
isolation of CSFV. Samples consisted of tonsil (n = 2),
spleen (n = 2) and kidney (n = 2). The CSFV propagated in
the PK15 cell monolayer and passaged up to sixth passage
level did not exhibit any detectable cytopathic effect (CPE).
Phylogenetic analysis
of the 5’ untranslated region gene
The nested PCR amplicons of the 5′ UTR gene of CSFV
from pygmy hogs (PH D 2004 and PH 13/2005) were
cloned into the pGEMT vector and sequenced
commercially.
Sequence
analyses,
based
on
151 nucleotides of the 5′ UTR gene of the pygmy hog
isolates, were found to be identical to other 5′ UTR genes
of CSFV isolated from different parts of the world, except
for a difference in one nucleotide (G in PH 13 and A in
PH D) at nucleotide position 52 of the 150 bp 5′ UTR
region. The 5′ UTR sequences generated in this study
(Table I) have been submitted to GenBank (GenBank
accession numbers EF471209 and EF471210).
M: 100 bp DNA ladder
L1 and L2: negative controls
L3: classical swine fever vaccine virus (positive control)
L4: classical swine fever pygmy hog isolate (PH 13)
Fig. 2b
Electrophoresis of the nested polymerase chain reaction
product the of 5′ untranslated region of classical swine fever
virus
The alignment and phylogenetic analysis based on
nucleotide sequences of the 5′ UTR gene for PH 13 and
PH D indicated that the CSFV isolate(s) that caused
death and disease in the pygmy hogs belonged to CSFV
genotype 1.1 (Fig. 3). The pygmy hog CSFV isolates
showed a close relationship to the CSFV strain(s)
circulating in the domestic pig populations in the state of
Assam, India, where frequent CSFV outbreaks are reported
every year.
Discussion
The ‘spillover’ (transmission of infectious agents from
reservoir domestic populations to sympatric wildlife) of
epizootic outbreaks represents a serious threat both to
wildlife and, via ‘reverse spillover’, to sympatric
populations of susceptible domesticated animals (6). Also,
the potential transfer of pathogens into previously
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Ind-241/08
Baksa 2007
Chaygaon 2007
Khanapara 2006
Ind-163/07
Ind-175/08
Ind-239/08
Ind-268/08
Ind-272/08
PH D 2004
BHD03
Ind-271/08
Ind-243/08
Ind-187/08
Ind-174/08
Kamrup 2005
Lokhra 2006
Haflong 2006
HCVCAD22/14 2004
Ind-273/08
Ind-270/08
Ind-240/08
Ind-176/08
Genotype
Genotype 1.1
1.1
Ind-173/08
Jagiroad 2006
Goalpara 2007
Boko 2006
PH 13 2005
Ind-299/08
Ind-298/08
Ind-296/08
72
Marigoan 2005
Beltola 2006
Mirza 2007
Sonitpur 2007
Dhemaji 2006
NcHills 2007
Dudhoni 2007
VAC-IVRI
INB 03
CSF6-2k
Ind-168B/08
CSFV/MP (1983-Pass)
CSF30-03
CSF23-02
CSF8-2k
CSF11-89
2.2
Genotype2.2
Genotype
Ind-294B/08
Nbe2/44 2004
CSF40-02
Genotype
Genotype 2.1
2.1
NG1/102 2004
CSF0309 Kanagawa
CSF0410 Congenital-Tremor
0.01
Fig. 3
Phylogenetic tree showing relationship of pygmy hog classical swine fever virus (CSFV) isolate with other
CSFV based on the 5′ untranslated region gene
The pygmy hog isolates are highlighted with buttons (PH 13/2005 and PH D/2004)
926
unexposed wild populations in often sensitive, protected
areas, such as those designated for captive breeding
programmes, represents a serious challenge to
conservation efforts (37). According to the IUCN Red List
of Threatened and Endangered animals, of the 733 animal
species that are known to have become extinct over the
past 500 years because of multiple causal factors, 31 cases
have been attributed, at least in part, to infectious diseases.
The IUCN Red List also reports that of the total
2,852 critically endangered species (1,490 plants and
1,362 animals), 233 (8% of the total) have infectious
diseases listed as a contributing threat.
The pygmy hog is a rare Suidae species with high genetic
variability, and it is listed in the IUCN Red List in the
‘Critically Endangered C2a’ category (version 3.1)
(www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/21172/0). The
animal is regionally extinct in Bangladesh and Nepal, and
its presence is uncertain in Bhutan. In India, the pygmy
hog is now confined to a very few locations in and around
Manas National Park in north-western Assam (18). The
major threats listed for the ‘critically endangered species’
status of the pygmy hog in the IUCN Red List are similar
to the threats for any wild fauna of the same status, and
they include loss and degradation of habitat because of
human settlements and activities. However, as a result of
habitat relocation of the pygmy hog in conservation efforts,
a little known, and what was thought to be less significant,
new threat of infectious diseases to the pygmy hog has
been encountered. In 2001, Rahman et al. (24) reported
the death of seven (six adult and one young) pygmy hogs
at the Research and Breeding Centre, Basistha, and this was
found to be due to Salmonella enteritidis infection.
However, the source of this infection in the pygmy hog was
not attributed to feed or water.
As is widely known, CSF is a highly contagious
transboundary animal disease that affects domestic pig and
wild boar, and it can rapidly spread across a wide
geographical area through the movement of animals and
animal products. Transmission through indirect contact,
such as feeding green feed/fodder harvested in areas of
infected herd/s, or through contact with infected personnel
and vehicles, is an important source of infection (13, 14).
The clinical course of the disease in wild boar is similar to
that in domestic pigs, where affected animals show an
acute, subacute or chronic form of disease (7). In addition,
infected wild boar tend to exhibit markedly altered
behaviour, such as loss of natural shyness and roaming
during daylight hours (12). In the present study, except for
8 of the 45 pygmy hogs attended, the majority of affected
animals did not reveal typical clinical signs of CSF. This
might be because they were infected with a virus strain that
showed different virulence characteristics (16).
Considering the different epidemiological factors, along
with persistent virus infection, the clinical signs of CSF can
Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 31 (3)
be extremely variable and therefore hamper correct and
timely recognition in the field (2). Clinical signs, as well as
gross changes, recorded in the present investigation were
in accordance with those reported by others (17). It has
been stated that the mortality rates in wild boar vary with
the clinical course of the disease (26).
Distribution of the viral antigen in the various lymphoid
tissues of the pygmy hog reaffirms that CSFV shows a
tropism towards lymphoid organs. Van Oirschot
(36) stated that almost all lymphoid organs including
tonsils, MLNs and spleen were affected in the first viraemic
phase, and propagated to highest concentration.
On the other hand, the virus probably does not
invade the parenchymatous organ until late in the viraemic
phase.
Pygmy hogs and domestic pigs appear to have a similar
susceptibility pattern to CSFV infection. In both species,
the clinical course of the disease, the mortality pattern, and
the developement of CSFV-antibodies in ‘in-contact’
animals is much the same. The presence of CSFV-specific
antibody in animals who recovered from the disease
provides supportive evidence regarding the exposure of the
breeding stock to the active virus infection. Interestingly,
young pygmy hogs and adults showed a high antibody
titre. The presence of high levels of CSFV-specific antibody
strongly suggested that mothers infected with CSFV
transferred the antibody passively to the young animals.
Again, the absence of CSFV-specific antibody in postweaned hogs four years after the last recorded outbreak
confirms that the strict hygiene measures adopted
subsequently prevented re-infection of the breeding stock
with CSFV.
Various workers use the PK15 cell line for isolation of
CSFV (23, 27, 33). Moreover, virus isolation is considered
to be the gold standard for confirmation of a CSFV
outbreak (2). In the present study, samples processed for
isolation were found positive in the fifth passage. In the
propagated samples, one sample showed highly positive
results in FAT, S-ELISA and PCR. From these results it was
observed that for adaptation of CSFV to cell culture at least
four to five blind passages are required. Singh (31) also
reported a similar observation, and suggested that for
adaptation of CSFV to cell culture at least two to three
blind passages are required.
For CSF diagnosis, antigen detection methods such as FAT
and ELISA have lower sensitivity and specificity, but they
have great advantages owing to their simplicity and rapid
turnaround times (2) compared with other antibody-based
techniques, i.e. neutralisation tests. In the present
investigation, the two tests showed similar observations
with respect to their performance in the detection of CSFV
antigen in tissue samples.
927
Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 31 (3)
Along with the antibody-based detection, RT-nPCR
amplification of E2 and 5′ UTR regions of CSFV confirmed
the involvement of the CSFV in the pygmy hog. Although
polyclonal-antibody-based diagnostics (S-ELISA, FAT) are
able to detect members of the Pestivirus group as a whole
(5), amplification of the nucleotides encoding E2 epitope
using current primer sets is specific for CSFV (16). This
region is responsible for synthesising the most
immunogenic glycoprotein of the virus (4, 25). The
lapinised strain of CSFV used in this study as a known
positive control also gave a comparable band in agarose gel
electrophoresis. Nested RT-PCR was found to be more
sensitive than FAT or S-ELISA in detecting CSFV. Paton et
al. (22) have also reported the order of test sensitivity as
RT-nPCR > RT-PCR > virus isolation > ELISA in detection
of CSFV.
The nucleotide sequences of fragments of the 5′ noncoding region (5′ UTR), the E2 envelope glycoprotein and
the non-structural protein NS5B are useful for
classification of CSFV into groups and subgroups (16, 22).
A phylogenetic tree constructed by the neighbour-joining
method for 5′ UTR sequences of 50 Indian CSFV isolates
along with the vaccine strain (VAC-IVRI) has been reported
in recently published papers (8, 21) and the pygmy hog
CSFV isolates of the present study all grouped into
genotypic clusters 1.1 (Fig. 3). Also, this phylogenetic
clustering indicated clearly that the pygmy hog isolates
must have been derived from and closely related to CSFV
isolates already circulating in domestic pigs.
Since the first reported outbreak of the disesase in 1962
(28), CSF has been an animal disease of major economic
significance, and it is endemic in domestic (indigenous,
crossbred and exotic breeds) pig populations in India.
Between the years 1996 and 2008, almost 1,308 outbreaks
of CSF were reported from different parts of India (OIE
World Animal Health Information Database: www.oie.int).
However, there have been no reports of CSF outbreaks in
Indian wild boar and hence their role in the epidemiology
of CSF is not clearly known. Seven north-eastern states,
including the state of Assam, are home to more than almost
a quarter of India’s pigs. The majority of the pigs in Assam
(over 1.5 million) are indigenous and crossbreds reared in
backyards using traditional husbandry practices. Local
forest products contribute to the state’s economy and play
an important role as a source of feed for livestock.
Hence, considering the presence of a high density of CSFVsusceptible domestic pigs and the endemic epidemiology
of CSF in these animals in Assam (24, 30) and other
neighbouring states, the authors predict the possibility of
indirect transmission of CSFV to pygmy hogs by infected
personnel or vehicles entering the captive breeding habitat,
as the chance of direct transmission is extremely rare in the
protected housing and breeding programme. However, the
role of wild birds in indirect spread of CSF to the protected
habitat cannot be ruled out. Extensive molecular
epidemiological studies of CSFV isolates from different
regions of India could give a clear picture of the
evolutionary trend, and the distribution of various groups
and subgroups of CSFV in this country.
Conclusion
From this study it can be concluded that: (i) pygmy hogs
are highly susceptible to CSF infection; (ii) CSF causes
death of affected pygmy hogs; (iii) CSF might have been
transmitted to pygmy hogs from the infection in
local/domestic pigs; (iv) there is a possibility of CSF
infection resulting in the death of more pygmy hogs in
future, as more and more animals become exposed in the
protected habitat; (v) there is a possibility that the
chronically infected pygmy hogs could become a source of
infection in domestic pigs and other feral pig populations
once they are released into the wild. Therefore, there is an
urgent need for an extensive epidemiological study of CSF
so as to formulate a strategy to protect this unique creature.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Department of
Biotechnology, Goverment of India, for providing financial
help to carry out the research under the project entitled
‘Molecular and immunological characterisation and
phylogenetic analysis of Indian isolates of classical swine
fever virus’. They would also like to thank the Pygmy Hog
Conservation Programme (Research and Breeding Centre
for Pygmy Hog Conservation, Basistha, Assam, India), for
supplying the samples and additional support.
928
Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 31 (3)
La peste porcine classique chez le sanglier nain
N.N. Barman, D.P. Bora, A.K. Tiwari, R.S. Kataria, G.S. Desai & P.J. Deka
Résumé
Le sanglier nain est une espèce rare de Suidés, dont les populations peu
nombreuses et menacées d’extinction se trouvent aujourd’hui concentrées dans
le seul État d’Assam en Inde. Lors des investigations menées pour déterminer
l’origine de la mortalité qui frappait les sangliers nains maintenus dans un centre
de recherche et de protection d’espèces captives à Basistha dans l’État
d’Assam, il a été établi que les sangliers nains étaient sensibles au virus de la
peste porcine classique, maladie infectieuse endémique parmi les populations
de porcs domestiques de l’Inde, et qu’ils succombaient après avoir été exposés
à ce virus. Cette étiologie, établie par des analyses post-mortem, par la mise en
évidence d’anticorps spécifiques contre le virus de la peste porcine classique et
par l’isolement du virus chez deux sangliers nains a été confirmée en obtenant
l’amplification du gène E2 et de la région non traduite 5′ du génome du virus de
la peste porcine classique au moyen d’une amplification en chaîne par
polymérase (PCR). Lors de l’étude phylogénétique conduite par la suite, les
séquences 5′ non traduites du génome du virus retrouvé chez le sanglier nain ont
été identifiées comme appartenant à la grappe génotypique indienne 1.1 du virus
de la peste porcine classique, ce qui signifie que les souches responsables de
l’infection chez le sanglier nain étaient étroitement apparentées aux virus isolés
chez les porcs domestiques. Par conséquent, l’apparition de la peste porcine
classique chez le sanglier nain risque de faire disparaître cette espèce
menacée, à moins que des mesures de contrôle appropriées ne soient prises
sans tarder. À la connaissance des auteurs, la peste porcine classique n’avait
jamais été signalée auparavant chez des sangliers nains.
Mots-clés
Amplification en chaîne par polymérase couplée à une transcription inverse (RT-PCR) –
Diagnostic – ELISA – Épreuve immuno-enzymatique – Peste porcine classique –
Porcula salvania – Protection des espèces menacées d’extinction – Sanglier nain – Test
aux anticorps fluorescents (FAT).
La peste porcina clásica en el jabalí enano
N.N. Barman, D.P. Bora, A.K. Tiwari, R.S. Kataria, G.S. Desai & P.J. Deka
Resumen
El jabalí enano es un pequeño y raro mamífero de la familia de los suidos que
actualmente está amenazado y solo se encuentra en el estado de Assam (India).
Al investigar las causas de la muerte de jabalíes enanos de un centro de
protección situado en Basistha (Assam) y dedicado a la investigación y la cría en
cautividad, se comprobó que esos animales eran susceptibles al virus de la
peste porcina clásica (VPPC) y morían a causa de esa enfermedad
929
Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 31 (3)
extremadamente infecciosa, endémica en la población de cerdos domésticos de
la India. Los análisis post-mortem y los títulos séricos de anticuerpos específicos
anti-VPPC, así como el aislamiento del virus en dos jabalíes enanos y una nueva
confirmación por amplificación génica (mediante PCR) del gen codificador de la
proteína E2 y de la región terminal 5′ no traducida del genoma vírico, sirvieron
para determinar con certeza la causa de la muerte de los jabalíes enanos.
Además, por análisis filogenético, se agruparon las secuencias 5′ no traducidas
del VPPC del jabalí enano en el grupo genotípico 1.1 de los virus indios de la PPC,
de donde se sigue que las cepas causantes de la infección estaban muy
emparentadas con los VPPC circulantes aislados en cerdos domésticos. Por
consiguiente, y a menos que se le ponga coto adecuadamente, la aparición de
PPC en esta especie amenazada puede poner en grave peligro su existencia, por
lo que urge prestar atención al problema. Hasta donde saben los autores, es la
primera vez que se describe la presencia de PPC en jabalíes enanos.
Palabras clave
Diagnóstico – Ensayo inmunoenzimático (ELISA) – Jabalí enano – Peste porcina clásica
– Porcula salvania – Protección – Reacción en cadena de la polimerasa acoplada a
transcripción inversa (RT-PCR) – Técnica de inmunofluorescencia.
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