TYPE Mini Review PUBLISHED 27 February 2026 DOI 10.3389/fmech.2026.1787696 OPEN ACCESS EDITED BY X. J. Jing, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China REVIEWED BY Vidyasagar S., SRM Institute of Science and Technology Research Kattankulathur, India A review of the lightweight and smart McPherson suspension for new-energy vehicles Yingshuai Liu 1, Shufang Wang 1 and Jianwei Tan 2* 1 Shandong Huayu University of Technology, Dezhou, China, 2National Lab of Auto Performance and Emission Test, School of Mechanical and Vehicular Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China *CORRESPONDENCE Jianwei Tan, [email protected] RECEIVED 14 January 2026 REVISED 16 February 2026 ACCEPTED 16 February 2026 PUBLISHED 27 February 2026 CITATION Liu Y, Wang S and Tan J (2026) A review of the lightweight and smart McPherson suspension for new-energy vehicles. Front. Mech. Eng. 12:1787696. doi: 10.3389/fmech.2026.1787696 COPYRIGHT © 2026 Liu, Wang and Tan. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. The rapid proliferation of new energy vehicles (NEVs), including battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), has fundamentally transformed automotive chassis design paradigms. The McPherson strut suspension, renowned for its compact architecture and cost-effectiveness, has emerged as a predominant configuration for NEV front axles. This review systematically examines the adaptation, optimization, and challenges of McPherson suspension systems in the context of electrified powertrains. We analyze the unique requirements imposed by NEV weight distributions, battery integration, and noise vibration harshness (NVH) characteristics, synthesizing recent advances in lightweight design, multi objective optimization algorithms, and active control integration. Key discussion areas include kinematic performance optimization through genetic algorithms and AI-driven methods, material innovations enabling mass reduction, NVH mitigation strategies, and the evolution toward semi active and energy-regenerative variants. Through critical analysis of over 30 representative studies and industrial applications, this review identifies that while McPherson suspension remains viable for NEVs, its successful implementation necessitates sophisticated parameter optimization, advanced materials, and intelligent control systems to address inherent limitations in roll stiffness and camber control. Future trajectories emphasize synergy with autonomous driving architectures and electromagnetic energy-harvesting technologies, positioning McPherson-derived systems as foundational components of next-generation intelligent electric chassis. KEYWORDS active control, lightweighting, MacPherson optimization, new energy vehicles strut suspension, multi-objective 1 Introduction The global automotive industry is undergoing an unprecedented electrification transformation, with new energy vehicle (NEV) sales exceeding 20 million units in 2025, representing a 25% year-over-year increase (Lu et al., 2012). This paradigm shift extends beyond power train replacement, fundamentally altering vehicle architecture, weight distribution, and performance requirements. The suspension system, as the critical interface between vehicle and road, experiences compounded challenges in NEV applications due to increased curb weights (typically 15%–30% heavier than conventional counterparts), altered mass distribution, and heightened sensitivity to energy consumption and NVH characteristics (Christ, 2015). The McPherson strut suspension, invented in the 1940s by Earle S. MacPherson (Gooch, 2011), has dominated front-axle applications in compact and mid-size vehicles for decades. Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering 01 frontiersin.org Liu et al. 10.3389/fmech.2026.1787696 FIGURE 1 McPherson suspension NEV adaptation research methodology. Its architectural simplicity—integrating a shock absorber, coil spring, and steering pivot into a single compact unit—offers exceptional packaging efficiency, manufacturing cost advantages, and proven reliability (Min et al., 2024). However, the direct transplantation of conventional McPherson designs into NEVs proves inadequate. The substantial mass of battery packs (often exceeding 500 kg in long-range BEVs) elevates sprung mass, modifies roll characteristics, and intensifies tire loads, necessitating comprehensive redesign and optimization (Wang et al., 2024). Furthermore, the absence of internal combustion engine masking effects elevates suspension-induced NVH to prominence, demanding refined electrokinetic tuning and advanced damping technologies (Lin et al., 2025). The integration of electrified powertrains also enables novel active suspension concepts, transforming the traditional passive McPherson architecture into semi-active or fully active systems with energy-regenerative capabilities (Dung et al., 2024). This review systematically synthesizes contemporary research and industrial practices addressing these challenges. We examine kinematic optimization methodologies employing genetic algorithms (Kulkarni et al., 2024) and artificial intelligence, lightweight material strategies utilizing aluminum alloys and fiber-reinforced composites (Simon et al., 2023), and advanced simulation techniques through ADAMS/Car multi-body dynamics analysis (Stańko-Pająk et al., 2025). Particular emphasis is placed on NEV-specific innovations, including electromagnetic active dampers, topology-optimized control arms, and intelligent control systems integrated with vehicle dynamics controllers. By consolidating these advancements, this review provides a comprehensive roadmap for researchers and engineers developing next-generation McPherson suspension systems tailored to the unique demands of electric mobility. Figure 1 presents an overview of the “McPherson Suspension NEV Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering Adaptation Research Methodology,” systematically outlining the boundary conditions, key technical pathways, and future development directions for McPherson suspensions in the context of new energy vehicles. 2 Fundamentals and structural characteristics of McPherson suspension 2.1 Historical development and core architecture The McPherson suspension represents a landmark in automotive engineering, pioneered by Earle S. MacPherson during his tenure at General Motors in the 1930s (Evangelisti, 2025). Originally conceived for compact cars targeting sub-oneton curb weights, the design consolidated the shock absorber and steering pivot into a unified strut assembly, eliminating the need for separate upper control arms. This innovation achieved remarkable space efficiency, reduced component count by approximately 30% compared to double-wishbone architectures, and delivered satisfactory ride comfort and handling characteristics for mainstream applications (Hu et al., 2025). The fundamental configuration comprises three primary components: a telescopic shock absorber housing that doubles as the steering kingpin, a coaxial coil spring, and an A-shaped lower control arm (LCA) connecting the knuckle to the subframe (Lanni et al., 2024). Most variants incorporate a stabilizer bar linking the LCAs to mitigate body roll. The mechanism’s kinematic behavior is characterized by wheel alignment parameters—camber, toe, caster, and kingpin inclination—that vary nonlinearly with wheel travel, fundamentally influencing tire wear, steering feel, and lateral stability (Hamza et al., 2024). 02 frontiersin.org Liu et al. 10.3389/fmech.2026.1787696 2.2 Kinematic principles and performance trade-offs reduction compared to conventional implementations (Simon et al., 2010). Furthermore, electric motor torque ripple and gear whine introduce new vibration sources within the 200–2000 Hz range, demanding redesigned subframe isolation strategies. Hyundai’s INSTER employs reinforced body sealing and thickened door glass, complementing the McPherson suspension’s inherent NVH characteristics to deliver premiumsegment quietness (Meek et al., 2013). Active noise cancellation systems integrated with suspension controllers can further mitigate tonal disturbances by phase-inverting strut-transmitted vibrations (Wang and Kennedy, 2025). The key parameters of suspension design between internal combustion engine vehicles and new energy vehicles are shown in Table 1. The McPherson suspension operates as a spatial mechanism where the strut’s sliding motion combined with LCA rotation guides vertical wheel movement. The instantaneous center of rotation is determined by the LCA pivot geometry and strut inclination, directly affecting the roll center height and camber gain characteristics. Unlike double-wishbone designs offering independent control of camber and kingpin geometry, McPherson’s integrated structure imposes inherent coupling constraints, resulting in compromised camber control during cornering and accelerated tire wear under aggressive driving. However, this coupling proves advantageous for NEV applications where packaging constraints are severe. The compact strut assembly accommodates front-drive motors and steering gear within minimal lateral space, while the high-mounted spring facilitates low hood lines critical for aerodynamic efficiency (Kim et al., 2012). The system’s natural frequency, typically 1.1–1.3 Hz for passenger cars, can be tuned through spring stiffness and motion ratio adjustments to compensate for increased NEV mass without substantially enlarging components. 3.2 Optimization methodologies and simulation technologies The complexity of NEV suspension tuning necessitates advanced optimization beyond traditional trial-and-error methods pioneered genetic algorithm (GA) application to electric vehicle McPherson design, minimizing front wheel alignment parameter variation and tire lateral slip through coordinated hardpoint coordinate adjustments (Liu et al., 2013). Their twostage optimization reduced camber change by 42% and scrub radius variation by 38% during 80 mm wheel travel, substantially improving tire longevity and steering precision. Recent developments employ improved artificial fish swarm algorithms (IAFSA) to concurrently optimize suspension and seat parameters, achieving 15.4% reduction in driver seat acceleration and 11.5% improvement in body vertical dynamics for Class-B Road profiles at 20 m/s (GonAlves and Ambrósio, 2003). AI-driven approaches promise further enhancements; quantum-inspired optimization algorithms demonstrate superior Pareto front exploration efficiency compared to conventional GA, potentially reducing computational cost by 60% for high-dimensional design spaces. Multi-body dynamics simulation via ADAMS/Car has become indispensable for NEV suspension development, enabling parametric modeling of complex interactions between battery mass distribution and kinematic performance (Hmida et al., 2025). Established a micro-EV McPherson model validating against physical K&C (kinematics and compliance) test data, achieving <10% error in camber and toe curves across full travel range (Sun et al., 2023). Sensitivity analysis identifies critical coordinates influencing kingpin inclination and caster, guiding optimization focus to high-impact parameters. Topology optimization emerges as a powerful tool for component lightweighting. Dikmen et al. applied density-based topology optimization to a McPherson lower wishbone converted for EV application, achieving 22% mass reduction while satisfying durability and stiffness constraints. Integration of finite element analysis (FEA) with multi-body dynamics enables simultaneous structural and kinematic optimization, streamlining development cycles critical for fast-paced NEV product launches. A quantitative comparison of the core optimization technologies for NEV McPherson suspension and their key convergence parameters can intuitively reflect the performance differences and engineering application value of various methods, with the specific 3 Evolution and innovation of MacPherson suspension in new energy vehicles 3.1 NEV-specific requirements and design implications NEVs exhibit fundamentally different weight distributions compared to internal combustion vehicles. Battery packs mounted beneath the passenger compartment lower the center of gravity (CoG) by 50–100 mm but increase sprung mass by 200–400 kg, imposing severe loads on suspension components (Choi and Han, 2007). For McPherson systems, this translates to heightened bending moments on the strut assembly and increased LCA fatigue stresses. Static deflection under full battery load can exceed 40 mm, necessitating stiffer springs that compromise ride comfort if not properly calibrated (Uys et al., 2007). The mass penalty directly impacts energy consumption; a 10% weight reduction yields approximately 6%–8% improvement in driving range (Gordienko et al., 2006). Consequently, NEV chassis design prioritizes light weighting strategies, targeting 15%–25% mass reduction in upsprung components. McPherson LCAs, traditionally fabricated from stamped steel, are prime candidates for aluminum conversion or composite reinforcement, achieving 30%–40% weight savings while maintaining structural integrity (Krishna et al., 2005). The elimination of engine noise elevates road-induced NVH to primary prominence in NEV passenger experience. McPherson strut bushings and top mounts become critical transmission paths for high-frequency vibrations (80–300 Hz) from tire-road interaction, requiring advanced rubber compounds and hydraulic damping elements (Sprang et al., 1996). Audi’s Q4 e-tron implements multi-layer acoustic glass and foam-filled tires to attenuate noise transmitted through the McPherson front axle, achieving 3 dB(A) interior noise Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering 03 frontiersin.org Liu et al. 10.3389/fmech.2026.1787696 TABLE 1 Comparison of suspension system design parameters between traditional internal combustion engine vehicles and new energy vehicles. Design parameters Traditional internal combustion engine vehicles NEV (new energy vehicle) Curb weight 1200–1500 kg 1500–2200 kg (+15%–30%) Sprung mass 850–1100 kg 1100–1600 kg (+200-400 kg battery) Height of C.G. 550–600 mm 500–550 mm Front axle load 55%–60% 58%–65% NVH sensitivity Medium (engine masking effect) Extremely high (no engine noise) Energy efficiency effect Secondary cause Every 10% reduction in upsprung mass leads to a 6%–8% increase in range Braking energy recovery No weakness Maximum 0.3 g deceleration, requiring anti-nodding optimization TABLE 2 Comparison of core optimization technologies and convergence parameters for NEV McPherson suspension. Optimization technology Core performance Key convergence params Application and advantages Limitations GA + AI hybrid (quantuminspired, optimal) 42% camber/38% scrub radius reduction; balanced handling/ NVH/wear 106-level; ≤10min; <8% error; global convergence Mid-high end NEVs (full scenarios); multi-constraint adaptation, high efficiency Requires computing power/ measured data Traditional trial-and-error 5%–10% handling improvement; basic performance met <102-level; 10d; 25% error; irregular convergence Low-end NEVs; low threshold, intuitive physical test Long cycle, no multi-objective optimization Improved IAFSA 15.4% seat acceleration/11.5% vertical dynamics improvement 103-level; 5h; 12% error; local convergence NEV urban roads; targeted vibration suppression, comfort optimization Local optimum, limited handling/energy optimization Topology optimization 22%–45% LCA mass reduction; load/stiffness compliant 104-level; 2h; 15% error; local convergence Suspension lightweight; significant mass saving, high stiffness matching Only component-level, no system performance improvement MPC 30% impact smoothness/8%–12% tire ground contact improvement 104-level; 1h; 10% error; realtime local convergence High-end NEVs (intelligent driving); active road adaptation, energy recovery synergy High cost, no basic suspension parameter optimization results summarized in Table 2. It can be seen from the table that GA + AI hybrid optimization (quantum-inspired) exhibits comprehensive advantages in optimization performance, convergence efficiency and adaptability to NEV multi-constraint requirements, and is the most suitable core optimization technology at this stage, while other technologies have obvious limitations in global optimization, parameter coverage and convergence efficiency, and are more suitable as auxiliary means for specific performance improvement. variants. Audi’s Q4 e-tron employs aluminum-intensive McPherson strut components, including knuckles and LCAs, contributing to a 15% front-axle weight reduction versus steelintensive architectures. However, aluminum’s lower fatigue strength necessitates redesigned load paths and increased section moduli, often validated through accelerated life testing correlating with multi-body simulation load spectra. Fiberreinforced polymers (FRP) represent the next frontier for McPherson lightweighting. Belin Gardi et al. developed a short glass-fiber reinforced polyamide (PA66) LCA through integrated product-process digitalization, achieving 45% mass savings versus steel baseline. The hybrid metal-composite design, featuring over-molded polymer on steel inserts, addresses difficult-to-model constraint behaviors while providing superior corrosion resistance critical for NEVs operating in varied climates. Manufacturing challenges include weld line management, creep behavior at elevated temperatures, and dynamic strength validation. Industry 4.0 paradigms enable real-time process monitoring to ensure consistent fiber orientation and minimize voids, achieving production-scale feasibility for volumes exceeding 100,000 units annually. 3.3 Lightweight design and material innovations The transition from steel to aluminum for McPherson LCAs offers compelling benefits for NEVs. A comparative FEA study on an EV McPherson arm demonstrated that aluminum (6061T6) constructions reduce mass by 34% while maintaining comparable static strength, though requiring 2.5 mm increased thickness to offset lower modulus. Dynamic performance improvements include reduced upsprung mass, enhancing road holding and enabling downsized actuators in active Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering 04 frontiersin.org Liu et al. 10.3389/fmech.2026.1787696 3.4 Active and semi-active suspension evolution Quantum computing optimization promises to revolutionize suspension design, potentially evaluating 106 parameter combinations within hours versus weeks for conventional methods. When coupled with digital twin technologies, this enables continuous in-service optimization, adapting to individual driving patterns and battery degradation-induced weight changes. Cell-to-chassis (C2C) architectures present both opportunities and challenges. Integrating battery packs as structural members could reduce overall vehicle mass by 10%, but requires McPherson hardpoints to accommodate increased chassis stiffness (targeting >30,000 N·m/deg torsional rigidity) and thermal expansion mismatches. Advanced adhesives with >15 MPa bond strength and elastomeric isolation layers will be critical for maintaining suspension kinematic accuracy. The electrification of powertrains facilitates integration of active suspension technologies previously constrained by parasitic energy consumption. Linear motor electromagnetic suspensions replace conventional dampers, enabling millisecond-level force control while harvesting vibration energy. Zuo et al. demonstrated a McPherson-derived electromagnetic suspension recovering 26–33 W average power under Class-C Road excitation while reducing body acceleration by 14.7%. Hybrid architectures combining passive hydraulic damping with active electromagnetic elements optimize the trade-off between energy consumption and dynamic performance. Ding et al.’s hybrid actuator achieves 67.8% energy reduction versus pure active systems while maintaining comparable ride comfort improvements, addressing critical NEV range preservation concerns. Advanced control algorithms transform McPherson suspension responsiveness. Model Predictive Control (MPC) leverages preview road data from front-mounted cameras to preemptively adjust damping, reducing impact harshness by 30% in validation studies. Machine learning approaches enable real-time adaptation to driver behavior and road conditions; reinforcement learning agents trained on diverse terrain databases outperform fixed-gain controllers in comfort-handling compromise metrics. Integration with vehicle dynamics controllers (VDC) enhances safety. During regenerative braking, McPherson strut compression can be actively managed to maintain optimal tire contact patch, preventing wheel lock-up and improving energy recovery efficiency by 8%–12%. This synergetic control exemplifies the holistic optimization potential in NEV architectures. 5 Conclusion The McPherson suspension system, though conceived eight decades ago, demonstrates remarkable adaptability to the unique demands of new energy vehicles. Through synergistic integration of lightweight materials, AI-driven optimization, and intelligent control, contemporary McPherson implementations successfully address NEV-specific challenges of increased mass, stringent NVH requirements, and energy efficiency imperatives. Industrial adoption across mass-market to premium platforms validates its continued relevance. Nevertheless, inherent kinematic limitations necessitate careful application, particularly in high-performance NEVs where doublewishbone alternatives may offer superior dynamic envelopes. The future trajectory unequivocally points toward active, energyregenerative variants deeply integrated with autonomous driving and battery management systems, transforming the McPherson strut from a passive mechanical component into an intelligent vehicle dynamics actuator. Continued research in quantum optimization, composite manufacturing, and electromagnetic actuation will be pivotal in realizing this vision, ensuring McPherson-derived architectures remain foundational to sustainable electric mobility. 4 Challenges and future perspectives 4.1 Persistent technical limitations Despite advancements, fundamental McPherson limitations persist. The inherent camber loss during body roll (typically −0.8°/g lateral acceleration) accelerates outer tire wear and reduces cornering grip compared to double-wishbone alternatives. For NEVs with high instantaneous torque, this deficiency becomes pronounced during rapid lane changes, necessitating supplementary chassis interventions. The elevated roll center required for battery clearance can induce jacking forces, particularly in vehicles with >300 mm ground clearance for off-road capability. Mitigation through LCA geometry revision often compromises anti-dive characteristics during heavy regenerative braking. Author contributions YL: Data curation, Conceptualization, Writing – original draft. SW: Methodology, Investigation, Writing – original draft. JT: Funding acquisition, Formal Analysis, Writing – review and editing. 4.2 Emerging development trajectories Funding Future McPherson evolution converges on intelligent, integrated systems. Electromagnetic energy-regenerative dampers are poised for commercialization, with suppliers like Monroe delivering CVSA2 dual-valve technology enabling independent rebound/compression control, specifically targeting EV applications due to minimal power consumption (<10 W average). The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. National Natural Science Foundation of China: 51508304. We gratefully acknowledge financial support from the New Energy Vehicle Intelligent Network Technology Shandong Province Higher Education Institutions Future Industry Engineering Research Centre Project. Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering 05 frontiersin.org Liu et al. 10.3389/fmech.2026.1787696 Conflict of interest intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any issues, please contact us. 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