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jlk  ‘v‹’pTpc“kYkk}kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkje3
jlk€” ‘T•2ƒzHzHxmzH{2k–k}kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkj-
jlk —‚˜w„ r&ƒsmr}™H‹’pczHzHr-zkškk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkjP›
jlkœ›ž*r-‹’“Ÿpl{crLzk*k}kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkj&
jlk ‚–rLr-‹t¡vƒlzW„r-z{lrLsmrLxu„ ™Wƒcƒ‹¢HrLxu„ k£k}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kk¤3l¥
jlk ¦ ‘Tr-‹’xmr§¨r-z•Wƒ‹©ƒsmsyr-smtª©¢WƒlŒlrLsmxmzH{W«t¡•WƒlzHzHxmzH{ct¡§¨rLzt¡v’‹ppc“¬„ rLsmrL‹©tLk­kkk}kk¤3l¥
jlkmj-¥Y‘T®W•2r-‹’•(pct’x¯vxyr°cpTpl‹±syxmzHr&ƒxm‹’r}zHrLvwŠr-‹’ŒcrLzk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kk¤3
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jlkmj&3­·}zHpTpc•H•H®Hzvt’°lr-‹’{crLsmx ¸wŒTxmzH{lr-zš°lpTpc‹smxmzHr-ƒlxy‹r}zHrvwŠrL‹Œlr-zk¹k}kk}kkk}kkº‡c‡
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3 k€3‚Âsyr-Œcv‹’xutª©¢Hr~t’xm{lzWƒlsyr-zkYkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkÁ¥
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k}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkÁT3
3 k  xyzHr&ƒxm‹’rĉÅƪpl“Ÿ•(plzHr-zv’rLzr-zt’Ç twvrL“ŸrLzkŽkk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkÁT”
3 k€” Ńl•WƒlªLx¯vrLxyv-kÈkk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkÁ—
3Hk ”Hkyj
Ãqƒ‹“ŸplzHxut’ª©¢É{lr&„ ‹ƒl{$ª-ƒ•Wƒcªxyv’r-x¯v³kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkÁ ›
3 k — ‘T•(pTrLsÊk¹kkk}kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkÁ
3Hk —Wkyj
Ãqƒ‹“ŸplzHxut’ª©¢É{lr&„ ‹ƒl{$t’•(pr-sËkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkÁ
3 kœ›ÌÂrL‹©twvr~pc‹„Hrqsuƒlƒl{c„ pTpl‹suƒlƒPv’ÍWsyv’rL‹†k}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkÁ¦
3 k  xyzHr&ƒxm‹’r}°crL‹©twvrL‹ŒlrL‹Žkkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kk¤”l‡
¿žÎÏMQFHG&G&IhSNÐ}XZIJGL`-OPIRK э`&IhMUHFHSÆMTfhMd `-OeIJG-ÒeÓ­U2MOPÔ£Ï(N2MTS
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‡Hk ‡ nÅY°crL‹“Ÿpl{lr-zØk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kk¤”l¦
‡Hk  ĉÅÆ°lr-‹’“Ÿpl{crLzš™Wx ¸Ù™(rLsuƒlt¡v’xmzH{Ÿ“$rLvrLr-zŠrLr-‹t¡vƒlzW„Úkk~kk}kk}kkk}kk¤”l¦
‡Hk€”‚ĉÅÆ°lr-‹’“Ÿpl{crLzš™Wx ¸±Ûhƒlt’rL°crL‹©t’ª©¢T®Hxm°TxyzW{Üv’®2t’t’rLzt¡•2ƒzHzHxmzH{ŸrLz^t¡v’‹pTpl“
kkº—c¥
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‡Hkœ›‚‘vrL‹©t’ª©¢2ƒŒlr-syxmzH{2k×kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkº—3
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Þw߉à$á$âZã}äá±å‰æÙç‰èé
‡Hk 
‡Hk ¦
¨smrLŒv’‹xut’ª©¢$°lr-‹’“Ÿpl{crLzbxyz¬r-rLz¬twvrL‹©t’ª©¢2ƒŒlr-syxmzH{~“Ÿrv¨ŠrLrL‹©t¡vƒz2„Ht¡™(rLsuƒlt¡v’xmzH{2kq—
¨smrLŒv’‹xut’ª©¢ê°lr-‹’“Ÿpc{lrLz¹xyz6r-rLzët¡v’r-‹tª©¢WƒŒcrLsmxyzW{ڙHx ¸Ûhƒlt’rL°crL‹©t’ª©¢T®Hxm°TxyzH{
v’®Wtt’rLz^t¡•2ƒzHzHxmzH{ŸrLz^t¡v’‹pTpl“k×k}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~k¤—c”
‡Hkmj-¥ìx ¸wz §r-zÉÛhƒct¡r&t¡•2ƒzHzHxmzH{crLz°cpTpl‹±rLr-zt¡v’r-‹tª©¢WƒlŒlrLsmxmzH{Wk kk}kk}kk}kkk~k¤—l—
‡Hkmjlj³Â¨smrLŒv’‹xut’ª©¢°lr-‹’“Ÿpl{crLzšxmzÛR®HzWªv’xmrÜ°Pƒz„ rsyx ¸wzH{c‹’pTpv¢Hr-„HrLzkTk}kk}kkk~k¤—›
‡Hkmj&3­Â*횪xJr-î zcv±v‹ƒlzWt¡•(pl‹’v±°eƒlzrLsmrLŒv’‹xmtª©¢°crL‹“Ÿpl{lr-zkïk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~k¤—l
‡Hkmj-‡ìð¨‹xyz2ªxm•2r&t’ª©¢Hr-“¬ƒb°cpTpl‹±¢HrvÙv‹ƒlzWt’•2pc‹¡v±°PƒzrLsmrLŒv’‹xut’ª©¢É°lrL‹“Ÿpl{crLzñkk~k¤—l¦
‡HkmjLÆ‘ ƒ“Ÿr-zWt’ª©¢2ƒŒlr-syr-z°Pƒz{crL™H‹®HxmŒlrL‹©tòk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~k¤—l¦
óÌ[ÉM\Ï2QMOPF `-IJÏ2SMTfhMU2MOPG-`-MOed2MO
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Wkmjon‰pTr-smt¡v’r-sysmxyzW{ôk}kk}kk~kkk}kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kõ›3
Wk€3‚¨xm{lr-zWt’ª©¢2ƒ•H•(rLz°Pƒz„ rpl•(rL‹©ƒPvxypczHrLsmrq°crL‹©twvrL‹Œlr-‹¹kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kõ›3
Wk ‡ ²‹©ƒz2twÛRr-‹¡vŒeƒl‹ƒlŒv’rL‹xutwvxyr-Œökk}kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kõ›”
Wk  ²pTr-•Wƒltt¡xmzH{t¡“Ÿpl{crLsmx ¸wŒT¢Hr&„ rLz_kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kõ›P—
Wk€”‚n‰rxmzT°lr-‹¡vrL‹rLzW„ r}°crL‹©twvrL‹ŒlrL‹kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kõ›P—
Wk — ˆ‰ƒl{cƒlƒlz°PƒzvrL{lr-zHŒlpc•H•(rLsmxyzH{¤k}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~k¤l¥
Wkœ›Ìn‰rxmzT°lr-‹¡vrL‹rLzW„ rt’pl“Ÿ“¬ƒPvpl‹škk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~k¤l‡
Wk  n‰rzWxyrLvxyzT°lr-‹¡vrL‹rLzW„Hr~°crL‹©twvrL‹Œlr-‹ôk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~k¤
Wk ¦ n‰r™W® ÷(r-‹tª©¢WƒlŒlrLsmxmzH{øk~kkk}kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~k¤c”
Wkmj-¥ìn‰rܪLpl“Ÿ•Wƒl‹ƒv’pl‹¶k}kk~kkk}kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~k¤l—
Wkmjlj³n‰r¾‘Hª©¢H“Ÿx¯v’vv’‹rLŒTŒlr-‹øk~kkk}kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~k¤l—
Õ¼[ÉM\XIhύXZM
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” kmjon‰pTr-smt¡v’r-sysmxyzW{Wk*k}kk}kk~kkk}kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~k¤¦
” k€3 ‘TÇT“¾™(pTplsr-zɊrL‹ŒTxyzH{2kbkkk}kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~k¤¦
” k ‡ ‘vƒv’xut’ª©¢WrÜtwv‹’pTpl“$§ùt¡•2ƒzHzHxmzH{t¡ŒPƒ‹©ƒŒvrL‹xmt¡v’xmrLŒúk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~k¤¦l—
” k  ûrLzWƒc„ rL‹©„ r}ŒPƒ‹©ƒŒv’r-‹’xutwvxyr-ŒšƒsutÙt’ª©¢2ƒŒlr-smƒcƒ‹kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~k¤¦l
” k€” ü~rL™H‹®HxmŒÉƒlsmt±zHxmrvsmxmzHr-ƒlxy‹Ùr-syr-“$r-zvÚk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kÉj-¥c¥
” k€” kmj
nÅƃlzWƒsmÇ t¡rŽk~kkk}kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kÉj-¥c¥
” k€” k€3
ĉÅÆr-µ®Hxm°eƒlsyr-zvÙtª©¢Hr-“Ÿƒ¶kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kÉj-¥3
” k — pc{cƒ‹xyv’“Ÿxmtª©¢Hr~rLz^ƒzvxysmpl{ƒ‹x¯v“$xutª©¢Hr‰°crL‹©twvrL‹ŒlrL‹òkkk}kk}kk}kkk~kÉj-¥l
” k —Hkmj
ýÙr&ƒsmxmtƒPvxyr}smpl{cƒl‹’xyv’“Ÿxut’ª©¢Wrq°crL‹©twvrL‹ŒlrL‹þkk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kÉj-¥”
” k —Hk€3
ýÙr&ƒsmxmtƒPvxyr}°Pƒz„ r܃zvxysmpl{ƒ‹x¯v“$xutª©¢Hrq°crL‹©twvrL‹Œlr-‹-k0k}kk}kkk~kÉj-¥”
” kœ›‚ü~rLsmx ¸wŒ t’•WƒzWzHxyzW{ct’°lpTr-„ xmzH{2k–k}kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kÉj-¥T›
” k  ¨zHŒcrLsyÛhƒÝ-xy{crq{crLsmx ¸wŒT‹xmª©¢v’r-‹¶k}kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kÉj-¥c
” k ¦ n‰®W™H™2r-s¯ÛhƒlÝLxm{lr{crLsmx ¸wŒT‹xmª©¢v’xmzH{^kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kÉj-¥c¦
” kmj-¥ìû‹’®H{c{lr-syx ¸wŒT‹’xuª©¢v’rL‹ôkk~kkk}kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kÉjlje3
” kmjlj£ü~rLsmx ¸wŒT‹xmª©¢vrL‹’§JÍWsyv’r-‹±kk~kkk}kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kÉjlj&‡
” kmj&3­n‰‹xmrÛhƒÝ-xy{cr}{lrLsmx ¸wŒ‹xuª©¢cvrL‹Ækk}kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kÉjlje”
ÿ
ëÏXÑZfJF `-IJM W[MÔVÏXZÑfhFH`-IhM
C(CTÀ
—Hkmjon‰pTr-smt¡v’r-sysmxyzW{ôk}kk}kk~kkk}kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kÉj&3l¥
—Hk€3‚ÃrLvqt¡•(r-ªv’‹®H“ °Pƒzr-rLzt¡xm{lzWƒcƒsøkk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kÉj&3l¥
—Hk ‡ ^p „ ®HsuƒPvxyr P„ r-“$p „ ®Wsmƒv’xmr°eƒlzÆ´r -´r zrLzWŒlrLst’xm{lzWƒcƒsÆkkk}kk}kk}kkk~kÉj&3l¥
—Hk  H‹r-µ®Hr-zcvxyr“b®Hsyv’xm•Hsyr rL‹xyzH{ kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kÉj&3c3
—Hk€”‚𨋩ƒŒv’xutª©¢Hrq‹r-ƒlsyxutƒPv’xmr~plzv’°PƒzW{lrL‹ñk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kÉj&3c”
Þwßqàbá$âZã}äá±åqæÙçè é
”
—Hk — ýÙr&ƒsmxmtƒPvxyr}“Ÿp „ ®HsuƒPvpl‹ìkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj&3c”
—Hkœ›Ìĉ“$•Wsyxyv’®W„HrܓŸpT„H®Hsmƒv’xmr¬kk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj&3›
—Hk  ĉ“$•Wsyxyv’®W„HrܓŸpT„H®Hsmƒv’pc‹ k}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj&3›
—Hk ¦ Ä
„HrL“Ÿp „ ®HsuƒPv’pc‹Æk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj-‡c¥
—Hkmj-¥ W‹’r&µc®WrLzv’xmr}“$p „ ®Wsmƒv’xmr\kk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj-‡Wj
—Hkmjlj W‹’r&µc®WrLzv’xmr}“$p „ ®Wsmƒv’pl‹¼k}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj-‡Wj
—Hkmj&3 xms¯vrL‹©tLkkkk}kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj-‡l
—Hkmj-‡ìýÙr&ƒsmxmtƒPvxyr}suƒlƒl{c„ pTpl‹suƒlƒPv’ÍWsyv’rL‹ kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj-‡”
—HkmjLYýÙr&ƒsmxmtƒPvxyr}¢HpTpc{c„ pTpl‹suƒlƒPv’ÍWsyv’rL‹¬kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj-‡T›
—Hkmj&”­ýÙr&ƒsmxmtƒPvxyr}™WƒlzW„H„ pTpc‹’suƒlƒv¡ÍWsyv’r-‹~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj-‡c¦
i¼[M^KIhQÏ(fhFHIhOeM`-OeFWSZG&IhG-`-Ï2O
CTó0¿
›TkmjonqpTrLsutwvrLsmsyxmzH{Wk kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšjLc
›Tk€3 ‘TÇT“b™2pTpls r-zŠr-‹’ŒTxmzH{Wk$kk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšjLc
›Tk ‡ Ç t¡xutª©¢Hr}‹’r&ƒsmxmtƒPvxyr~rLzŠrL‹ŒxmzH{ k}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšjLT”
›Tk  ·ƒl‹ƒlŒcvrL‹xmt¡v’xmrLŒcrLzÌk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšjL ›
›Tk€”‚nÅYxmzWt¡v’r-sysmxyzW{¬rLzĉÅYŒPƒ‹©ƒŒvrL‹xmt¡v’xmrLŒ k}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšjL
›Tk — ü~r-“$r-rLzWtª©¢Wƒl•H•2r-syx ¸wŒlr“$xyv¡vrL‹q‘Hª©¢WƒŒcrLsmxyzH{kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšjL¦
› k —Wkyj
nÅÆxyzWt¡v’r-sysmxmzH{þkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj&”Hj
› k —Wk 3
ĉÅƃzWƒlsyÇ t’r†kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj&”c3
› k —Wk ‡
–rL‹ŒTxyzW{ct’{lrL™Wxyr&„ƒsut±smxyzHr&ƒxm‹’r}°crL‹©twvrL‹ŒlrL‹ kk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj&”
›Tkœ›‚ü~r-“$r-rLzWtª©¢Wƒl•H•2r-syx ¸wŒlr¾Åpcsysmr-ªv’pl‹‰‘Hª©¢WƒŒcrLsmxyzH{bkk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj&”l—
›Tk  ü~r-™H‹’®WxyŒƒlsmtÙtª©¢WƒlŒlrLsuƒlƒl‹Yk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj&”l—
›Tk ¦ ü~r-™H‹’®WxyŒƒlsmtÙt¡v’‹pTpl“b™H‹’pcz kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj&”l
ž[M^U2MTfhXYM MTÒl`b`-OeFWSZG&IhG-`-Ï2O
CHÕ2À
HkmjonqpTrLsutwvrLsmsyxmzH{Wk kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj-—c¥
Hk€3 úÖ}‘ ² TvwÇT•2r&tÙrLzt¡ÇT“b™2pcsyr-zk2k}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj-—c¥
Hk ‡ úÖ}‘ ² TÛRÇ t¡xut’ª©¢Wr~‹r-ƒlsyxutƒPv’xmr¾kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj-—3
Wk ‡Wkyj
ˆ§ÊŒPƒlzWƒlƒls(r-zH¢WƒlzWªr-“$r-zv úÖ}‘ ²¶kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj-—3
Wk ‡Wk 3
ˆ§ÊŒPƒlzWƒlƒls0„HrL•Hsmrvxypcz –Ö}‘ ² kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj-—c‡
Wk ‡Wk ‡
ð¨§ÊŒPƒlzWƒlƒls(r-zH¢WƒlzWªr-“$r-zv –Ö}‘ ²ºkk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj-—c‡
Wk ‡Wk 
ð¨§ÊŒPƒlzWƒlƒls0„HrL•Hsmrvxypcz úÖ}‘ ²Ekk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj-—l
Hk 
²
kkk}kk}kk}kkk}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj-—”
Wk 2kyj
ˆ§ÊŒPƒlzWƒlƒls
²¶k}kk~kk}kkk}kk}kk}kkk~kk}kk}kkk}kkšj-—”
Wk 2k 3
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LOG VERSTERKER
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ANTILOG
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exp(.)
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3 7
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minst significante cijfer som
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